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U. S. COMMISSION OF FISH AND FISHERIES, 

GEORGE M. BOWERS, Commissioner 



THE 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 



BY 



^ CHAl'iLES H. STEVENSON. 



Extracted from U. S. Fish Commission Bnlletin for 1898. Pages 335 to 563. 



WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
1899. 



U. S. COMMISSION OF FISH AND FISHERIES, 

GEORGE M. BOWERS, Commissioner 



/JJ- 



THE 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 



BY 



CHARLES H. STEVENSON. 



Extracted from U. S. Fist Oomtdssion Bulletin for 1898. Pages 336 to 563. 



WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
1899. 






'•' .'i «•• 



i 



c^ 



THE 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 



By CHARLES H. STEVENSON. 



335 



SYNOPSIS. 



Page. 

Introduction 337 

Preserving lishery products alive 339 

Inclosed water areas 339 

Well-smacks 341 

Live-cars or live-boxes 344 

Overland transportation of lire fish 348 

Shipping live lobsters 35U 

Shipping live oysters and clams 353 

Shipping 11 vo craba 356 

Terrapin and turtles 357 

Ketrigt-ration, or preservation by low temperature 358 

Cooling fish with ice " 359 

Icing cod, haddock, and bluefish 363 

Ifing lialibut 363 

Ice in fresh-mackerel fishery 365 

Icing shad 365 

Icing oysters 366 

Refrigerator cars 367 

Freezing tish in the open air 368 

Frozen-herring industry 36C 

Artiticial freezing and cold storage 370 

Development of cold storage 371 

l>escri])tioa of ice-and-salt freezers 373 

description of mechanical freezers 374 

Process of freezing and cold storage 377 

Freezing fisli in Kurope 3Sr> 

Freezing herring for bait 387 

Preserving lisherv products by drying and dry-salting. 389 

Dried codtish". ' ". 390 

Reddening of salted codfish 399 

Preparation of boneless codfish 400 

ForeiffU cniWish markets 406 

Codfish curing in foreign cotintries 406 

Stockfish 410 

Dried and dry-salted salmon 411 

Dry-salted niullet 412 

Dry-salted chan nel bass 413 

Dry-salted kinglish 413 

Dry -sailed barracuda and honito 414 

Chinese slirinip and fisli drying 414 

Dried sturgeon products 417 

Dried trepangs 418 

Drviug tiali by artitieial means 420 

Preservation ot fishery iirodueta by pickling 425 

Development and nii-tliods of brine-salting 425 

Regulations res pert ing brine-salting fish 427 

liriiir-salted niit.k.-rel 430 

liriuf -Sidled litTiing 436 

Round herring 438 

(jibbed and split herring 439 

Impnrtaliim of foreign herring 440 

Foreign methods of curing lierring 441 

Brine-sal ttcl nitwit es or river herring 450 

Brine-salted cod and haddock 453 

Brine-sa 1 ted salmon 455 

Brine sailed mullet 457 

Brine-salt ed shad 458 

Brine-sailed swoidtish 460 

Brine-salting lisli on the Great Lakes 461 

Brine-salted iuiliWnt fins 404 

Miscellaneous brine salting 464 

Pressed sitnlines 465 

Salted pilehards or fumadoes 465 

Italian sardels _. 466 

Giihrfiseh or fermentation fish 466 

SalilstrJim process of brine-salting fish 466 

Pickling with vinegar and spices 467 

Russian sardines 467 

336 



Preservation of fishery products by pickling— Cont'd. Page. 
Pickling with vinegar and spices — Continued. 

Christiania anchovies, etc 468 

Pickled sturgeon 469 

Pickled eels 470 

Pickled salmon, etc 471 

Pickled (^yst ITS 473 

Pickled eianis, mussels, etc 473 

Pickled lobsters 473 

Preservation of fishery products by smoking 474 

Smoked herring 478 

Hard herring 478 

Bloater herring 485 

Kippered herring 488 

Smoked alewives or river herring 489 

Smoked lake herring and whiteflsh 491 

Smoked salmon 493 

Smoked hall but 497 

Smoked haddock or Finnan haddie 500 

Smoked sturgeon 501 

Smoked catfish 503 

Smoked eels 504 

Smoked mackerel 505 

Smoked shad, fiounders, lake trout, carp, etc 506 

Preservation of fishery products b / canning 507 

Development and methods of canning 507 

Canning salmon 512 

Canning oysters 516 

Canning soft clams 519 

Canning mackerel 519 

Mackerel plain-canned 519 

Broiled mackerel 520 

Canning salt niiickerel 520 

Canning lobsters 521 

Canning shrimp 523 

Canning crabs 524 

Sardines 526 

Sardine canning in Maine 526 

Sardines on the Pacific coast 532 

Menhaden as sardines 533 

Foreign sardines 534 

Canning eels 537 

Miscellaneous canning 538 

Herring 538 

Menhaden 538 

Smelt 538 

Smoked sturgeon 538 

Halibut 539 

Spanish mackerel 539 

Green turtle 539 

Giant scallops 53St 

Codfish halls, etc 540 

Pre])aration of fish eggs for food 541 

Caviar 541 

Russian methods of preparing caviar 54 4 

M n llet roes 546 

Sail ed shad roes 547 

Eggs of cod, haddock, etc 547 

Food extracts of nmrine products _ 549 

Extracts of fish 549 

Extracts of clams aud oysters 553 

Miscellaneous antiseptics and antiseptic processes 557 

Boracio acid 557 

Roosen process 558 

Eckhart process 559 

Jannaseli preservative 560 

Mi.scellancous antiseptic compounds 560 

Moss water 563 

Compressed air 563 



THE PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 



By Charles H. Stevenson 



INTRODUCTION. 

Methods of preservation are of constantly increasius: importance to tbe prosperity 
of tlie fisheries — more so, perhaps, than to any other food-sni)plying industry. In 
agriculture, cereals arc cured sufQciently in the open air to keep for indetinite periods; 
vegetables and fruits with proper care will generally remain in edible condition long 
enough to reach distant markets, and some will last until the following season; the 
domestic animals intended for food may be transported alive to the place of marketing 
and theie slnughtered; but, under ordinary conditions, fishery products are subject 
to rapid putrefaction after removal from the water. 

It is now a generally accepted opinion that all putrefaction is caused by the devel- 
opment of living organisms known generally as bacteria or putrefactive germs, this 
theory being announced first in 1837 by tbe German physiologist, Theodore Schwann. 
"Putrefa!'tion,' says Oohn, "begins as soon as bacteria, even in the smallest numbers, 
are introduced, and progresses in direct proportion to their multiplication." In living 
animals there is a tendency to counteract the development of these germs, and main- 
taining marine animals alive is the simplest form of preservation, although rarely the 
most economical. Afterlife is extinct, heat, moisture, and air are all more or less neces- 
sary to the development of bacteria, and it is principally by removing one or all of 
these ■ factors that ])reservatiou is accomplished. This gives us three principal 
methods of preserving dead fish, viz: Itefrigeratiou, which diminishes the heat; desic- 
cation or drying, which decreases the moisture; and canning, which separates the 
preserveil ])roduct from the air. Another method of great importance is the applica- 
tion of antiseptics, sucdi as salt, vinegar, etc., this process being known generally as 
pickling. Other forms of preservation, the most important of which is smoking, par- 
take of the characteristics of the preceding with the addition of further treatment 
for the puriiose of flavoring. These six processes, viz, preserving alive, refrigeration, 
desiccation, canning, pickling, and smoking, include practically all the general 
methods of preserving flsheiy foods. 

The (jualities of the original products, however, are so varied and subject to such 
delicate influences that a process well adapted to the preservation of one article may 
be impracticable or deleterious when applied to another, even of the same class. 
Thus it would not do to refrigerate salmon, herring, and oysters in the same manner; 
nor is the process of salting codfish, halibut, herring, and swordfish the same. The 
manner of preservation also ditiers according to the market for which the ai'ticle is 
intended. Codfish destined for the New England market would not be suitable for the 
Gulf States, and that for the West Indies and Brazilian trades requires still different 

F. C. B., 1808-22 ' 337 



338 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

treatment. Therefore, iu this report the general method of each form of preservation 
is first noted, and then its particular i^rocess of application to each species and for 
each of the principal markets is described. It shoukl be remembered, however, that 
the excellence of any particular product does not arise wholly from the special mode 
of preservation, but from care and attention in the process, guided by experience and 
close observation. No matter what process is employed, careful treatment during all 
the various stages is of fundamental importance, and without it no first-class article 
will be produced. A serious difficulty with which the fishery trade has to contend is tlie 
competition with products of careless or indifl'erent preservation. In too many cases 
superior quality of the product is sacrificed entirely to cheapness of production, and 
preparers who desire to maintain aliigh standard suffer from the resulting comi)etitioii 
and frequently are compelled to cheapen their own process or retire from the business. 

In few countries has greater attention been given to tlie preparation of fishery 
food products than iu tlie United States. Iu the various international expositions our 
exhibits of this class have excited favorable commeut because of the great variety and 
excellencie of the products and the neat and convenient forms in which they are pre- 
pared for sale. Tlie large representation of foreign nationalities in the United States 
has probably been a factor in increasing the number of our methods of preparing 
marine foods. People immigrating to America and devoting their time to handling 
fishery products naturally make use of the ideas and methods in vogue in their native 
countries. The smoking of haddock and some other species was introduced in this 
way by Scotchmen; the Chinese on the Pacific coast and in Louisiana prepare fish, 
shriini», etc., by methods similar to those practiced in the Orient, and the preparation of 
sturgeon i)ioducts was first begun hereby natives of Germany and adjacent countries. 
The congregation of i)eoplo of foreign birth in our coast cities also tends to increase 
the list of fishery products; a small local sale for certain articles develoi)iiig among 
those people, the trade gradually extends until such articles become of recognized 
importance in the food markets. There are, however, many additional methods of 
preserving marine food products that could be employed advantageously to meet the 
wants of new markets. Numerous products highly valued in Europe and Asia are 
never utilized here, although abundant in the United States waters; and a large part 
of our fishery resources are undeveloped through a failure to appreciate and follow the 
foreign methods of iireservation. Herring, for instance, is one of the most abundant 
species of fish on the United States coast, being very frequently obtainable in much 
larger (juantities than the fishermen make use of, yet the United States imports 
aunually over $2,000,000 worth of herring products. 

The purpose of this paper is not to instruct the various fishery i)reparators in the 
methods of their particular trade, but rather to present the chief processes employed, 
and tlius enable those who are interested to compare the different nielhods. The 
author has carefully consulted the fishery literature and has freely availed himself of 
the data contained therein, yet he has avoided giving a description without actual 
knowledge of the i)resent processes or iiujuiry from persons familiar therewith. But 
no care or labor can wholly avoid mistakes, and as the plan of this work embraces a 
great variety of subjects concerning which much difference of oi)iniou and practice 
exists among fishermen and marketmen it is altogether likely that it will be somewhat 
open to criticism, but it is hoped that the errors will not be so numerous or so gross 
as to materially impair its utility. 



PKESERVATION OF FISUEUY PRODUCTS FOK FOOD. 339 



PRESERVING FISHERY PRODUCTS ALIVE. 



In some foreign countries, e.si)ecially in (rcrniauy, a large portion of the fresh- 
water tish and sonic salt water species are snpiilied to the markets alive. The live-fish 
traile in China is very extensive, the fish being peddled abont the cities and villages 
in buckets of water, and those not sold are returned to inclosures of water for future 
sale. In the United States, liowever, live fish represent an inconsiderable portion of 
the trade. A iuw of the New York market lishennen take their catch of cod, sea bass, 
and blaeklish into port alive by means of well-smacks, and some of the shore Usher- 
men at points along the coast or on the interior waters retain their fish for a few days 
in live-cars or live-boxes; but the quantity of fish sold alive in this country is indeed 
very small. However, lobsters, (aabs, oysters, clams, terrapin, and turtles are sold 
alive, and unless in tliat condition are not generally considered marketable as fresh, 
except in tlie case of shucked oysters and clams. 

VVIien jiracticable, this is one of the most satisfactory methods of marketing 
marine loods, not only because of the sui)erior quality of the ])roduct, but also because 
it avoids costly processes of preservation. There is nj) general or uniform process 
employed for keeping the animals, each species receiving such treatment as it particu- 
larly rc(piires. Fish and lobsters are kept alive in large inclosures or in well-smacks 
and live boxes, while oysters, clams, terrapin, ami turtles ordinarily require little care, 
unless they are to be held a considerable length of time. 

INCLOSED \A^ATER AREAS. 

When wliitetish were abundant in Lake St. Clair and Uetroit Kiver, a practice 
prevailed of buililing inclosures one eighth toone-half acre or more in extent, conform- 
ing to tiie shore, for retaining the tish during October and November for sale during 
the early winter. These pens were usually built of 2-iuch by (> inch hard-wood piles 
driven into the bottom and iirojecting above the surface, with about i^ inch space 
l)etween the piles to allow the water to freely pass through the area. A platform 
with a barred entrance was arranged at one side to facilitate the handling of the seine 
and the admission of the tish into the i)en, or this was accomplished by having a gate 
hinged to a mudsill at the bottom and with tlie upi)er part about a foot above the 
surface of the wiitcr and inclined at an angle of about 45°. The gate was opened by 
pushing it beneath the surface, when the tish might be easily emptied from the seine 
into the [lond. Tiie ponds were usually emptied liefore the end of December, the tish 
being removed from the iuclosure as the market demand required. The introduction of 
freezing and the increasing scarcity of wliitetish in Lake St. Clair led to the abandon- 
ment of these ponds about 1S88. Wliitetish are still preserved alive in net inclosures 
in Lake Krie, Init this is principally for the purpose of obtaining eggs for use in arti- 
ticial jiropagation. 

At Port Huron, in ISSl, Messrs. Friichtnicht & Neilson, of Sandusky, Ohio, 
constructed a large pen for retaining sturgeon alive. This iuclosure covered an area 



340 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

of about one-fourth acre, aud was made by driving 2incli by 12-inch hard-wood 
timbers into the ground about 2 inches apart on three sides of the pen, the beach 
forming the fourth side. The cost approximated $5,000. At one time the pen con- 
tained as many as 6,500 sturgeon. The iish were usually not fed at all, even though 
retained four or five months, aud little, depreciation occurred either in weight or 
quality. Feeding them on corn was attempted, but they did not appear to require 
it. The sturgeon were caught for removal by means of a short seine having a cluiin 
on the bottom. They had a tendency to burrow, aud it was sometimes difficult to 
catch one even when there were a hundred or more m the pen. The business was 
highly successful until the decreasing supply of these fish caused its abandonment 
about 1887. 

At several other points on the Great Lakes there were inclosures for retaining 
sturgeon, and at some of them a regular ijractice prevailed of feeding the fish on corn. 
In the fisheries of North and South Carolina it was formerly customary to provide 
pens in which sturgeon were confined until a sufficient number had been accumulated 
for a "killing." Some fishermen whose operations were less extensive, however, did 
not resort to building a pen, bat would merely pass a rojie through the lower jaw of 
each fish and fasten the other end to some convenient fixture. 

The trai) fishermen of Rhode Island have large pounds, made of twine, and some- 
times 00 feet square aud 30 feet deei), in which scup and other fish are held for two or 
three mouths. Sometimes 12,000 barrels of fish are there held for a month or two. 
The trap tisheruien of other localities so;iietimes have a similar contrivance on the 
back of each trap net, in which a few barrels of fish may be held for several weeks. 

Quantities of striped bass and perch were formerly kept alive for a week or more in 
southern Delaware by inclosing them in pens built of pine logs aloug the river banks. 

On the coast of Maine there are several inclosed coves or ponds for confining 
lobsters several months, if necessary, the princi])al ones being at Viual Haven, South- 
port, House Island, South Pond, Prospect Harbor, and Friendship. Their form aud 
adaptability depend on the coastal formation. The first one was established at Vinal 
Haven, in Penobscot Bay, in 1875, by Messrs. Johns(m & Young, of Boston, and that 
is yet the largest and most successful on the coast. It is the small end of a cove 
covering about 500 acres, communicating with the sea through a 150-foot channel, in 
which the tidal range is about 10 feet and the depth from 30 to ISO feet, averaging 
about 90 feet. The inclosure devoted to lobsters covers about 9 acres, and is separated 
from the large cove by a natural shoal surmounted by a stout wire fence about 200 feet 
long. Its bottom is of soft grayish mud and the water ranges from to CO feet in depth. 
It has a capacity for about 300,000 lobsters, but a smaller quantity usually does better. 
The capacity of the other ponds or coves ranges from 25,000 to 200,000 lobsters. 

The lobsters are deposited in the inclosures when the condition of the market 
warrants and are held for a higher price. They are fed quite regularly on cheap fresh 
fish of various kinds, piincipally split hake, hake heads, small cod, herring, fiounders, 
bream, etc. Fat herring are not desirable for lobster food, as practical experience has 
shown that they cause the lobsters to decrease in weight. For the same reason, when 
using hake, it is well to remove the livers, as they are rather too oily. The quantity 
of food required depends largely on the temperature of the water, since lobsters do 
not eat as freely in cold water as in that of a higher temperature. The food should be 
well scattered over the pond, as throwing it in heaps causes the lobsters to congregate 



PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 341 

in large numbers, resulting in their biting and injuring each otlier in their contests 
for food. If not fed regularly it is quite dirticult to keep the lobsters in the inclosure, 
but when properly supplied they seem contented and improve both in appearance and 
weight: yet it is not generally ])rolitable to feed them for an increase in weight alone, 
the profit coming from the ability to place them on the market when the prices are 
the highest. In catching them seines, pots, or beam trawls are employed. The latter 
are usually 12 feet across, with IS-inch runners. If properly attended, the mortality 
is small and the lobsters improve in weight and condition. It is estimated that in 
November, 1898, there were 700,000 lobsters retained in the i)ouds or iTiclosures in 
Maine. 

At several of the fishery ports along the Gulf of Mexico there are small inclosures 
for retaining green lurtle and terrapin. These are usually 400 or 500 square feet 
in area, and are made by driving rough poles into the ground near the slioi'e, where 
the water is 6 or 8 feet deep at low tide, connecting and bracing them by nailing a 
strii) along the line near the top, the poles being 1 or 2 inches from each other and 
sutliciently long to project a few feet above the surface of the water. For convenience 
in handling the turtle these pens are generally constructed adjacent to the landing pier 
leading to a market house. The turtle are placed in the pen and removed therefrom 
by means of a block and tackle attached to a swinging arm. They are generally fed on 
alga*, fish, etc., until it is desirable to market them, when they are placed in boxes, 
barrels, or otherwise secured, and shipped without further care. 

WELL-SMACKS. 

Well smacks were introduced in England in 1712, being first used at Harwich, 
where 12 were in ojjeration as early as 1720, but the idea seems to have originated 
with the Dutch fishermen many years beftn'e. According to Dr. Fuller's "History of 
Berwick," well smacks were used in carryiug live salmon from Berwick to London 
prior to 1740, those vessels being of about 40 tons burden each. 

Previous to the general use of ice on vessels, which began about 1840, most of the 
New England market vessels, especially those in the halibut fishery, were constructed 
with a well in the hold, in which the fish were retained alive until delivered at the 
fishing port. The use of well-smacks, or welled-smacks, in the halibut fishery began 
at New London, Conn., and Greenport, N. Y., about 1820, and by 1840 the fishery had 
extended to Georges Bank. Before the employment of these vessels the halibut 
fishery was prosecuted only during cold weather, the fisli being carried in bulk in the 
hold. 

The first well-smack at (iloucester was built in 1835 and was designed to carry 
about 12,000 pounds of halibut. The fish were caught by means of hand lines and 
were handled very carefully, being placed in the well immediately on removal from the 
water. Those dying before reaching market, through injuries or otherwise, were sold 
at about one-fourth the price of live halibut. On account of the greater convenience of 
using ice and the general adoption of trawl lines in the halibut fishery the well-smacks 
have been entirely superseded by tight-bottomed vessels. 

Formerly nearly all fishing vessels running to the New York market during cold 
weather were constructed with wells. But the dwindling of the market cod fishery 
from that port, due to competition with Boston and other New England points having 
the benefit of the trade with drying establishments, has led to a large decrease iu the 



342 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

mimber of vessels engaged, and (hiring recent years there have been only eight or ten 
vessels which during the winter and spring take their catch of cod, sea bass, and 
blackfish into I'^nlton Market alive. Well smacks have been employed also in the red- 
snapper lisheries of Key West and Pensacola, but they are being discarded, it being 
found more satisf ictory to ice the fish than to keep them alive. The lobster trade 
along the New England coast still uses a number of well smacks, and in some of them 
steam has superseded the use of sails as a motive ])ower. 

The well in which tlie tish or lobsters arc placed is situated amidships at the 
bottom of tiie hold, extending from Just forward of the main hatch nearly to the 
in.dnmast, and occupying about one-third of the length of the vessel. It is formed by 
two stout, water-tight bulkheads at either end, 4 or 5 feet high and about .") inches 
thick, extending from keelson to deck and entirely across the vessel. Midway 
between tiiese is usually another bulkhead, wliicli assists in su])|)orting the deck and 
divides tlie well into two compartments. Leading from the well to the deck is a funnel 
curb, about 2i feet wide by 8 feet long at its upjier end and 4 feet long at its lower 
end. The well has neither kei-lson 7ior ceiling, aiul the frames are usually the same 
distance apart as elsewhere in the vessel, but on some smacks they are twice as tar 
ai)art, in order to permit the water to circulate freely and to facilitate dii»ping the fish 
from the well. About .'iOO auger-holes are bored in the bottom planking of the well, 
through which the sea water freely enters, and it is kei)t in circulation and constantly 
renewed by the motion of the boat. On the lobster smacks the auger-holes are gener- 
ally 2 inches in diameter, wliereas those on tish smacks are more frequently 1 inch. 
The vessels range from 13 to GO tons and those using sads are either schooner or sloop 
rigged, though more ireiiuently of the former type. 

On the liritish coast a number of "dry-well" smacks, having an artificial circula- 
tion of water, are employed. In some of these there is a series of one or more lengths 
of perlbrated su])ply i)ipes arranged near the bottom of the well and connected at 
one end to a circulating pump operated by the main engine if on a steamer, or by a 
donkey engine or otherwise if on a sailing vessel, a two-way cock being on the pipes 
outside the well. The pipes, being at the bottom of the well, cause a continual circu- 
latiou of water in an upward direction and thoroughly aerate the water as well as 
cause all the scum and refuse to rise to the top, whence, along with the used water, it 
escapes back into the sea through several bell-mouthed overflow pipes, the lower ends 
of which pass through the vessel's bottom and are mounted so as to incline aft from the 
top, and thus allow the force from the forward movement of the vessel to suck them 
clear. The aeration of the water can thus be kept under i)erfect control and the well 
be readily emptied of water by i)umping when it is desired to remove the fish. 

The well-smacks running cod, sea bass, and tautog to the New York market, 
which tish off Sandy Hook and Long Island shore, have capacity for 8,000 to 20,000 
pounds of fish each, depending on the time of the year and the length of the trip. 
Hand lines are employed for the most part and the fish are placed in the well as soon 
as taken from the water, the hook being carefully removed. Each vessel generally 
carries a small quantity of ice, with which to preserve such fish as may die, as well 
as the surplus that can not be placed in the well, this ice being carried in pens at 
either end of the well. The cod when caught in no great depth of water live in the 
well, under ordinary couditious, a week or more, but the sea bass and tautog are not 



PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PROPUCTS i^OR FOOD. 343 

SO Lardy and do not keep much more than half that long. The length of time which 
the cod will live d('|>eiid.s also on the time they have been kept on the trawls, in case 
that form of apparatus is used. On arrival at Fulton Market the fish are removed 
from the well with hmg-haudleil di[) nets, and placed in wooden cars, which are kept 
floating in the dock. For a des(;ri[>tion of these cars see next page. 

Lobster smacks are employed mainly along the coast of Maine and Massachusetts, 
but there are a few at New York, Greenport, and New London. Up to a few years 
ago vessels of this tyi)e were used in bringing lobsters from Nova Scotia, but at i)resent 
those shipments are made usually in barrels on regular commercial steamers. The 
lobster smacks are mostly old vessels which were formerly employed in the live flsh 
trade before i(;ing became the general practice; but many flue vessels are now coming 
into use, and at Portland, Maine, four steamers are engaged in this tr:ule. About (iO 
well-smacks are now employed in transporting lobsters along the coast, running to 
Rockland, Portland, Boston, New London, New York, etc. Their capacity ranges from 
3,000 to 10,000 lobsters, with an average of about 9,000 during c^old weather and about 
two-thirds or half that number when the weather is warm. Tiie'loss in transit is 
small, rarely amounting to 2 \)er cent, unless the weather is calm or the loaded smack 
remains in still water very long, wlien the lobsters use up the air held in solution by 
the Wiiter and smother. These vessels are not so extensively employed as a lew years 
ago, on account of the comi)etition with steamer and railroad transportation, but they 
are yet an important factor in connection with the lobster trade. 

The well sm;i(;ks until recently employed in the Gulf of Mexico red-snapper fishery 
were of the sa ne ty|)u as those in use on the New liJngland coast, indeed most of them 
were designed for the New England fisheries. At Key West a number of smaller sail 
craft, known locally as "smackees," are provided with wells. These boats average 
about 25 feet long, S feet wide, and -1 or 5 feet deep, with sliarj) bottom, the dee]) draft 
being necessary in order to submerge the hull suflicieutly for the water to cover the 
flsh in the well, which occupies about a quarter of the boat's length measured on the 
teel. 

On account of the great depth from which red snappers and groupers :ire as a 
rule obtained, considerable difficulty was at flrst experienced in keeping them alive, 
the pressure of the water being so much less in the wells than at a depth of several 
fathoms that the air bhidder would become greatly distended and the fish fioat belly 
up. To overcome this the fishermen adopted a practice of puncturing the air bladder 
as soon as the flsh reaches the surface, forcing a hollow metal tube j-inch in diameter 
into the side of the fish a little behind and just above the pectoral fin, thus relieving 
the air bladder ot its extreme buoyancy so that the fish may control its movements 
in the well. Only those red snappers taken in less than 10 fathoms of water can be 
successfully held in the wells for a week or two; if caught in more than 10 fathoms 
they must be handled carelully, and if from over 20 fathoms they soon have a swollen 
surface, the eyes i)rotruding and the scales becoming loosened and standing erect. 
For the purpose of holding the surplus fish when the well became overcrowded, some 
01 the smack fishermen also carried two or three cars, about 8 feet long, 4 feet deep, 
and 4 feet wide, so constructed that they could be takeu apart and stowed below deck. 
But, as before stated, the use of ice has almost entirely superseded the employment 
of well-smacks in the red-snapper fishery. 



344 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

LIVE-CARS OR LIVE-BOXES. 

The most usual metliod of keeping fishery products iu captivity alive is by means 
of live-cars or live-bo.\es. Tliese are emi)loyed iu the market fishery of New York, 
the lobster fishery of the Xew England States, the catfish fishery of Louisiana, the 
seine fishery of the (Uilf of Mexico, and in numerous other small fisheries along the 
coast and on the interior waters. Ordiiuirily they are plain wooden boxes, with open 
seams or numerous auger-holes to permit a free circulatiou of water and yet not so large 
as to permit the escape of the fish, their size and shape conforming to the requirements 
of the fishes and the localities for which they are intended. The buoyancy of the 
material entering into their construction keeps them at the surface of the water, with 
little more than the upper portion exposed, this position being regulated if necessary 
by attaching floats or weights, as the case may require. When it is desirable to move 
them frequently from place to place they are made in the form of skififs. 

Tlie live cars employed at Fulton Market, New York City, for retaining cod, sea 
bass, and tautog or blackfish brought in by the well-smacks, are of various sizes, but 
generally about IS- feet long, 12 feet wide, and from 2 to 3 feet deep, the depth being 
greater iu the center than at the two ends. They are made of planking 1 inch thick 
and G inches wide, nailed to a rectangular frame of joist, with spaces of 1 or 2 inches 
between the planks to allow free circulation of water, aiul are without partitions on 
the inside and without barrels or other buoys. Iu the top of each are two pairs of 
doors, running the entire length of the car, but covering only about half the width, 
and which may be fastened with a padlock. The cars are moored in the dock at the 
rear of the market, and by means of tackle attacheil to the rear of each fish-house they 
are raised occasionally and rested on a platform or float running the entire length of 
Fulton Market, so that they may be cleaned and dried to prevent their becoming 
water-logged. Tiiey cost about $24 each and have capacity for 3,000 or 4,000 pounds 
of fish under ordinary conditions. No food is given the fish confined in the cars and 
the length of time during which they may be kept depends on the weather. If bottom 
ice forms, the tautog may all die in one night, but the cod are quite hardy. As soon as 
the fish are removed from the cars they are killed, and being much fresher and firmer 
they are sold at a higher price than that received for fish brought in packed in ice._ 
These cars are used also for holding lobsters and green turtle alive. 

At certain of the European fishing j)orts the retaining of live cod in floating cars 
is quite extensive. From Holdsworth's "Sea Fisheries" is obtained the following 
account of the business at Grimsby: 

When the sniaiks arrive with their cargoes of live and dead fish at Grimsby, the cod in the well 
are t.iken out hy means of long-handled landing nets, and .are jilacfd in wooden b ixes or chests which 
are kei)t lioating in the doik; there the lish are stored till wanted for the marliet. These cod chests 
are 7 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 2 feet deep; the ))ottom is made of stout battens placed a short distance 
apart, so that the water jieuetrates freely to the interior, as it does also between the planks of which 
the sides and ends are built up. The top is wholly planked over, except in the center, where there is an 
oblong opening for putting in and taking out tisli. This opening is closed by a cover when the chest is 
in tlie water. Two ropes or chains are fixed in tlie ends of each chest for convenience in moving it about 
and hoisting it out of the water. About 40 good-sized cod, or nearly 100 suuiller ones, may he put into 
one of these chests, and will live there without much deterioration for about a fortnight. There are 
usnally as many as 400 of these chests in the Grimsliy fish-dock, sometimes all in use and containing 
from 15,000 to 20,000 live cod. Every day during the cod season a remarkal)le scene is ]>resented here, 
and the same thing occurs at Harwich, although on a sm:ilU"r scale, Grimsby and Harwich being the 
two ports where the live cod are stored. A <(rlaiii inin lin of fish being wanted for market, the 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 345 

salc'Hmen make their preparations accordingly, and tin' cod are taken out of the chests and killed. I 
nay killi-d, because the fish are not merely taken out of tlie water and allowed to die, hut they are 
dispatched in a very summary manner. A chest of cod is Iironght alongside an old hnlk kept for the 
purpose, and moored in the dock clos(^ to the market place; tackles from a couple of davits are then 
hooked on to the handles, and the chest is hoisted np till nearly clear of the water, which drains 
throngh the bottom and leaves the fish dry. The cover is then taken off, and a man gets into the 
opening and takes ont the fish, seizing them by the head and tail. As may be supposed, the commo- 
tion among 50 or HO cod just out of the water is very great, anil it is often a work of diiHculty to get 
a good hold of the fish ; but, one after another, they are lifted out and thrown np to the deck'of the 
hnlk, when they come into the hands of another man, who acts as executioner: he grasps the fish 
tightly behind the head with his left hand, holds it firmly on the deck, and, giving a few heavy blows 
on the nose with a short club, kills it at once. 

It is sometimes as much as can be done to hohl down a large and lively fish on the slippery deck 
while giving it the couj) de grace; but the work is generally skillfully perfcu'iued, and the dead fish 
rapidly accumulate into a large heap, whence they are t.iken to the adjoining i|";>.v to be packed in 
bulk in the railway trucks waiting clo.se by to receive them. p]aeh truck will hold about twelve 
score of good-sized fish, or a proportionately larger number of smaller ones. The lisli thus killed and 
packed reached Killingsgate in time for the early market next morning, and are known in tlii' trade 
by the name of " live cod," the manner in which they are killed aH'ectiug the muscles of the fish in 
some way that enables the crimping process to be carried out successfully some hours after the fish 
have been taken out of the water. These cod command a high price, and are looked upon as essentially 
''West End'' fish. There is, ofcour.se, a great advantage gained bythus storing the cod alive, for not 
only is the market more regularly supplied than would otherwise be the case, owing to small catches 
during bad weather, or clelays from calms or adverse winds, but the fish themselves also come into the 
hands of the fishmongers in a fresher state than almost any other kinds supplied to them. 

In coiuiectioii with its hatching: operations at Woods Hole, Mass., the U. S. Fish 
Commission retains live cod in cars, and for protection in stormy weather these are 
sheltered in ati inclosure. The method is as follows: 

The fish are taken with hand lines fished from the deck while the vessel is drifting in water from 
10 to 40 fathoms deep. Those taken in the shoaler water are preferable to those coming from deep 
water, as the change to the shallow cars in which they are held at the station is less pronounced. 
Great care is ,>xercised in catching the fish, for when hastily hanled ui> from deep water they are very 
liable to be "poke-blown''; that is, they have their stomachs turned inside out through the mouth. 
When drawn in with moderate speed, they become adapted to the gradually diminishing pressure and 
do not suffer injury. It is also imjiortant in unhooking the fish not to injure its mouth any more than 
is absolutely necessary, as the wound caused by the hook freijuently spreads and forms a large sore 
and eventually kills the fish. All the vessels which collect cod for the station are provided with 
wells, in which the fish are placed and held while in transit. When a vessel arrives at the station 
with cod, the fish are immediately transferred with di]i nets from the well to live-cars Ki feet long, 
6 feet wide, and .5 feet deep, which are constructed of wood and divided into two compartments by a 
crosswise partition. As the fish obtained from smacks are paid for by the pound, it is customary to 
weigh about 10 per cent of each load and estimate the total weight by the average of those weighed. 
While being weighed, the cod are also counted, about 500 being put in each car. The cars are moored 
in the middle of a pool or basin protected on all sides by a -wharf, which breaks the force of the sea 
in stormy weather and affords a sheltered place for handling the fish and taking the eggs. Cod take 
little or no food when spawning. The impounded brood fish are often tempted with fresh fish and 
with fresh and salted clams. (Report IT. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries for 18!17, pp. 200-201.) 

In the cattish trade centered at Morgan City atid Melville, La., very substantial 
live-cars are used in transporting the (latch from the lishing-grounds to the markets. 
These are built in the shape of a flat-bottomed skiff, sliarp at each end, the sides, top, 
and bottom being formed of slats, with space between each slat for the free circulation 
of water. They range in length from IS to -'50 feet and about 5 feet in width. At each 
end there is a water-tight compartment with about 40 gallons capacity, and by empty- 
ing or tilliug these compartments with water the buoyancy of the car may be regulated. 



346 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

Since the cars are usually towed by steam tugs at a speed of G or 8 miles per 
liour, tlie dt'termiiiation of the i)roper buoyancy at either end suitable for towinj;- 
recpiires considerable judgment and experience. 

These cars are divided by a slat partition into two or more comiiartnients, so 
that the ftsh will not all crowd together. Their capacity is from f) to 10 tons of fish, 
dependent on the temperature and condition of the water. During warm weather, or 
when there is considerable sediment in the water, the tugs usually carry ice in which 
the fish are packed in preference to cari-ying them in the live cars. 

The fishermen catching hogfish along the coasts of Virginia aTid Nortli Carolina 
usually transport them in live-cars to the marketing ports, and tlie sauui is true in a 
number of other minor fisheries of the coast. In the sea bass and tautog fisheries 
prosecuted on the southern coast of New England the fishermen occasionally use boat- 
sha])ed cars made of wood, sharp at both ends, with auger-holes in sides and bottom 
and with top covered with hinged lid. A common size is .5 feet long on top, 3 feet long 
on the bottom, which is flat, and 2 feet wide on top at the middle. 

Live-boxes are generally employed in the eel fishery of Connecticut, Long Lslaud, 
and other places on the Atlantic coast, but the.se conform to no established shape or 
size, suiting tlie convenience and needs of the individual fisherman. Several of the 
catfish fishermen of Philadelphia retain their catch for several days or even weeks by 
putting them in large boxes lined with tin, which are placed in their yards and kept 
covered over, the water being changed frequently. 

In this connection it may be well to describe the cars used in the Penobscot by the 
United States Fisli Commission in transferring live salmon from the fishermen's weirs 
to the retaining ponds, preparatory to stripping them of spawn for hatching purposes: 

The car employed is niaile frnni the common dory, ilivideil tr.ansversely into three nompartiiieuts. 
The central one, vhich is much the larger, is occupied by the tish, and is sumotlily limd with thin 
boar<lH and covered with a net to prevent the fi.sh jumping out or being lost by the car capsizing, 
which sometimes occurs, while to guard them from fright and the rays of the sun a canvas cover is 
drawn over all. 

The first cars of this form constructed had iron gratings to separate the central from the for- 
ward aTid after compartments, the water being admitted through the forward and discharged through 
the after compartment, but this was objectionable because the salmon were constantly seeking to 
escape through the forward grating, and often injured themselves by rushing against it. Smooth 
wooden gratings were afterwards used, and for many years cars wore employed iu which the 
compartments were separated by tight board jjartitions, the openings for the circulation of water 
communicating through the sides of the boat directly with the tish compartment, and being, of 
course, grated. This was very satisfactory, but when it was found desirable and practicable to use 
ice in transportation the forw .ard compartment became the ice room, .and it was necessary to jjcrforate 
the partition again to .admit the cold water to the lish. Finally, stout woolen blanket cloth was 
substituted in the partitions, with eyelet holes wrought in to afford passage to the water. This is the 
form now iu use, in which the water is admitted through openings in the sides to the ice roiiin, 
from which it passes through the tish room to the after room, whence it is discharged. The car is 
ballasted so that the rail is just above water, or, in case of an unusually large load of tish, a little 
below it. All the openings communicating with the outside are controlled by slides, which can he 
closed so as to let the car swim high and light when it is towed empty. 

To .avoid injury to the fish in transferring them to the cars, fine minnow dlj) nets, lined with 
woolen tlanuel of open texture, are used. The bow on which the net is hnug is 22 inches in diameter, 
ami to secure a net of ample width three ordinary nets, 36 inches in depth, are cut open down one side 
quite to the bottom, and then sewed together, giving thus three times the ordinary breadth without 
increasing the depth. 

The collection of .salmon is begun each season usually from the 20th of May to the 1st of June, 
but as the maximum temperature that the fish fresh from the weirs will endure is about 75° F., the ■ 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 347 

tompeniturc of thi^ water tlirimj;h which the cars are towed must lie takeu into lonsidoratiou, and 
the collectiim not he postponed nntil too late in the season. If tlie collection is prolonged, this 
diHiciilty is ohviated by usinj; ice, as it has heen lonnd that liy moderiitinjj; the volnme of water 
passing throngh the ear and introdnciug it all throngli the ice compartment it is possilile to keep 
a nniform tempiTatnre iu the coni]iart!nent in which tin' fish are held several degrees helow that of the 
water in the river, thereby insnring the safe transfer of the salmon. (Report U. S. Commissioner of 
Fish and Fisheries for imi, pp. 32-33.) 

Tlie live cars used by the lobster dealers on the New England coast are tisnally 
substantially (•c)nstnicted, of large size, and divided into comj)artments. Those at 
Portland, Me., are mostly 30 feet long, 12 feet wide, and ."5 feet deep, with capacity for 
2,000 to 3,000 lobsters. The framework consists oi" six rectangular frames, feet apart, 
to which are nailed boards (> inches -wide and 1 inch thick, forming the tojt, bottom, sides, 
and ends, with spaces of 1 to 2 inches between the adjac^ent boards. 'J'he cars are 
thus divided into five transverse coiupartments, each of which is provided with two 
large doors entering from the top, omt door on eat-h side of the middle line of the car. 
The cost of each approximates $ii(», and tliey last four or five years. At l^ortland 
there are abont sixty of these cars, jiroviding storage capacity for IoO,000 live lobsters, 
which may be retained for three or four weeks under favorable conditions. 

The usual size of the loljster cars employed at lioston is 2S feet long. 11 feet wide, 
and feet deep, divided into four compartments, each of which holds from 500 to 800 
lobsters, according to the season. The compartments are separated from each other 
by vertical lathes, and each has two doois opening from the top. Some dealers 
omit two or three of the mi(l(ll<5 lathes iu eac'h jiartitioii l)otween the compartments, 
so that when the doors in the two middle ones are opened tiie ligiit causes the active 
and more healthy lobsters to scurry into the end coniijartments, where, huddled 
closely together, they are more easily removed with a dip net. The weaker lobsters, 
being less active, remain behind, and, thus separated from the sti'onger ones, may 
be removed as desired. During the first year after its constrnction the buoyancy of its 
material keeps the car afloat with the top slightly above the surface. But as it 
becomes water-soaked it is necessary to buoy it, which is accomplished by placing an 
empty water-tight barrel within the car at each corner. SuuiU marine ways are 
usually built adjacent to the cars for convenience in raising them above the surface of 
the water. The cars cost $!>() each. They last about live years only, their period of 
usefulness being shortened by the desti'uctiveness of the teredo. There are 05 of 
them in Boston, with an aggregate carrying capacity of about 170,000 lobsters. 

At Friendship and Tremont, in Maine, lobsters are retained in cars constructed 
on a plan invented and patented by J. R. Burns, of Friendsjiip, and differing from the 
usual type in being divided horizontally into separate compartments, each about a 
foot in height, thus i)reventing the lobsters from crowding and killing each other by 
their own weight. Each compartment is provided with convenient openings at the 
sides, so that lobsters and food can be introduced as desired. The cars are about 35 
feet long, IS feet wide, and (i feet deep, with capacity for 5,000 lobsters each. 

In New York the market floats already described as being employed in connection 
with the live fish trade are also used for retaining lobsters. The aggregate storage 
capacity of the floats at New York probably does not exceed 25,000 lobsters. 

The cars used by the lobster fisheimen of the New P^ngland coast are generally 
much smaller and more rudely constrmted than those of the dealers. It is desirable 
to have them small, because of the convenience in removing the lobsters by hoisting 



348 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

the cars rather than by bailing; bat some are so large that bailing is necessary. In 
general their capacity ranges from 100 to 1,000 lobsters, and entrance is made through 
a door on the toj). At Woods Hole, Mass., the cars are about 6 feet long, 4 feet wide, 
and 3 feet deep. At No Man's Land, Mass., the average size is about 10 feet hmg, n 
feet wide, and 3 feet deep, and some of them are constructed for breaking^the foice of 
the waves that beat against them, having the top and bottom converging toward tlie 
ends, which are somewhat pointed. Old dories provided with a cover and with 
numerous holes bored in the sides and bottom are frequently employed, but slat-work 
boxes are the most common. 

While the size and form of the live cars or boxes are largely matters of local fancy 
and convenience, it is important that they be of sutticient capacity to hold the lobsters 
without crowding. In estimating the capacity of live-cars several modifying conditions 
must be considered, such as the roughness of tlie water, temperature, shade, etc. lu 
localities where the water is still and quiet, fewer lobsters should be ])ut in a car of 
definite size than in more exi)osed localities, because lobsters must have air as well as 
water. When the water is still tlio air is quickly exhausted and agitation of the water 
is necessary to replenish it. More lobsters can be carried in a given space during cool 
weather than when it is warm. The number that can i)rofitably be put in a car depends 
also on the length of time they will remain there. In general, 150 lobsters to each 
100 cubic feet of space is most satisfactory, although sometimes 300 and even more 
are placed in 100 cubic feet. In shallow cars a greater number of lobsters can be 
carried per 100 cubic feet than in deep ones. When given sufficient room, lobsters 
may be kept alive in these inclosures for several days or weeks, while awaiting the 
arrival of the market boat or while holding them for better prices. If the length 
of the conflnemeiit extends beyond a week or two it is desirable to feed the lobsters, 
otherwise they will eat each other. Any refuse fish which is not very oily is used 
for food. It is not advisable to confine them in live cars and feed them for the i>ur- 
pose of increasing the weight, and nuless they are being held for a better market 
price the sooner tliey are removed from the car the better. The practice of plugging 
the claws of lobsters has been almost entirely abandoned. 

OVERLAND TRANSPORTATION OF LIVE FISH. 

Live fish are rarely shipped overland in the United States for commercial pur- 
poses, owing to the expense and also to the difficulty in keeping the water properly 
aerated and at the right temperature; but in connection with its work of stocking 
streams, etc., the Tnited States Fish Commission is almost constantly engaged in 
work of that nature, adiilt fish as well as fry being carried in si)eciiilly i)repared tank 
cars on trips that last sometimes a week or more. The best type of these cars is 
described as follows in the report of the Commissioner for 1898: 

The dimcnsiciiis of car No. 3 as n-built aro as follows: Length of body, 60 feet; tot.al length from 
end of platforin to end of platform, 67 feet 10 inches; width, 9i feet; height from top of rail to toji of 
roof, 13 feet 8 inches. The frame of the car is so braced as to permit of the two large doors iu the 
center extending from floor to roof. This feature very materially simplifies loading and nnloading. 
The interior of the car is finished in ash, and iu one end i.s an office, an ice-box of U tons capacity, 
and a pressure tank holding 500 gallons of water; at the other end are the boiler room and kitchen. 
The boiler room is equipped with a .5-horsepower lioilcr, circulating water pump, and air and feed 
pump. The tanks and caus used in transporting fish are carried in two compartments running along 



PKKSERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 349 

the sides of the car between the office auil boiler room. They are 30 fc^et lonj:, .3 feet wide, and 25 
inches deep. Under the car, between the trucks, is a re-servoir tauli holding liOO gallons of water, 
and from which water is pumped into the pressure tank near the office; it thou passes from this tank 
to the tish cans and tanks, and then back to the reservoir. lu the middle of the car, over the coni- 
partinents referred to, arc four berths aud several lockers for the use of the crew. The office also 
contains two berths, a writing desk, and a typewriter. These cars are fully ecinipped with all modern 
improvements in the way of brakes, couplers, signal whistles, etc., aud have ruUman trucks and 
:?:! inch Allen paper wheels. With the large water cajiacity provided, they are capable of carrying 
miicli greater loads of fish than ever before. 

In transi)ortiii,n' fresb-water .s))ecies both water and air circulation are used, but 
with salt-water .species the salt water is usually kept tierated by circulation only as it 
is not generally practicable to provide for a change of water. When the temperature 
is liigh, ice is sotnetiines packed about the transportation tanks to keep them cool, 
aud iu extreme cases a can tilled with ice is placed in the water. In this manner 
marine species have been carried successfully for six days or more. • 

In the above-described cars the carrying capacity is to some extent sacrificed for 
the comfort of the crew, since. they live on the cars throughout the year. Al.so the 
fish must not only reach their destination alive, but in a vigorous, healthy condition, so 
that they may live and be used in reproducing. Neither of these conditions is essen- 
tial iu transportiug live fish to market, consequently a greater carrying capacity could 
be secured in cars designed especially for that trade. 

A method of operating the air-pump by means of the rotary motion of the car axles 
was attempted on the U. S. Fish Commission transportation cars. The experiment 
is thus described on page 241 of the report for 1897: 

An arrangement w.as adopted to furnish power for the pump and an air-blowcr by means of a 
friction wheel placed on the truck at one end of the car. Tbis wheel was attached near one end to 
the top of the truck, so that it rested on tlie tread of the car wheel aud was held there by two spiral 
springs. When not in use it could be elevated above the car wheel by a lever operated from 
inside the car. Power was transmitted from the friction wheel by means of a countershaft and 
rubber belting. The friction wlieel gave a great deal of trouble, however, as it was impo.ssible to 
make it strong enough to stand the wear to which it was subjected. As the action of tbe truck springs 
while the car was in motion moved the truck frame up aud down, sometimes IS to 5 inches, the friction 
wheel would be jidteil out of position, and so uncertain was its operation that it could not be relied 
upon, and the i)unip and blower had to be worked by hand. 

As a general rule fish will carry best in water of a low temperature. Cold water 
absorbs more air than warm; it also les.sens the iictivity of tlie fish, causing them to 
consume less oxygen, and it retards decomposition in the organic substances cou- 
tained in the water aud the consequent generation of noxious gases. The lowering 
of the temperature therefore offers a threefold iidvaiitage. Whenever practicabh^ the 
fish should be ke[(t in confinement without food for a day or two before being trans- 
ported, so that there may be no danger of the water being made imjjure by excrements 
of the fish. 

In Europe considerable attention has been given to transporting lisli alive. 
Well-smacks are used iu the Nortli Sea fisheries prosecuted by Germany, Holland, 
and England. Live cars are emi)loyed by many of the shore fishermen, and in many 
of the fi.shmiirkets both fresh-water and marine siiecies are ke])t alive in tanks. The 
diflicnlty of keeping sea lish alive when natural salt water can not be obtained is met 
by the use of artificial salt water. Rut the most interesting feature of the European 
fish mtirketing is the overland transportation of live fish. 



350 HULLETIN OF THE UNITKD iiTATES FISH COMMISSION. 

In Germany fresh water species are transported alive in barrels about three- 
fourths full of water, tlie quantity of flsh to each barrel depeudiug on the variety, the 
length of the Journey, and the season of tbe year. During the journey the water in 
the barrel is in almost constant motion, presenting considerable surface to the air, so 
that during a short distance sufficient oxygen is in this manner introduced into the 
water. But if longer Journeys are made air must be introduced, which is accom- 
plished by filling a sprinkler with water and squirting this water into the barrel with 
considerable force from a short distance, or the water is agitated by a vertical paddle- 
wheel fastened ou the upper part of the vessel and separated from the fish by a per- 
forated wall. Some of the barrels are provided with a tube running almost to the 
bottom of the barrel, the lower end containing many openings, and through this tube 
air is forced by means of a bellows on the outside. The last method is preferred, for 
by its use tlie barrel may be filled with water and fish, the carbonic acid is driven off, 
aiul agitation of the water is avoided. In the manner above described fish can be 
kept alive for a considerable period in a quantity of water weighing much less than 
tlieir combined weight. 

In 1881 a company was organized in Germany for the wholesale transportation 
of fresh salt-water fish from Cuxhaveu, on tbe border of the North Sea, to Berlin, iu 
specially constructed cars. The form of car adopted was invented and patented in 
Germany by Arno (iustav I'atihaly, a Bohemian. 

The following description is from the German letters patent dated March 20, 1880: 

The transportiuij vessel is a railroad car, wliich ean be talceu off tlie wheels, the walls of which 
are double, tlie interveiiini; space being filled with iinui-ondiii'tors of heat. lusido the car, and resting 
on the double Moor, there is a shallow tank of forged iron with a vaulted roof, in which is placed the 
live lish with a iinantity of fresh sea water. Along tlie inside walls of the car are shelves for storing 
the dead lish, and ice-boxes attached to tbe ceiling serve to keep the air cool. With a view to supply- 
ing the live lish in tbe tank with the necessary oxygen, air is led by means of pipes from the top of 
the car into the ice-boxes in which it is cooled and then by means of an air-pump it is forced into the 
fish tank. This air-pump is counocted by means of a belt with one of the axles of the ear, so that 
the necessary power may be obtained while the car is iu motion, and iu order to protect the fish from 
suflbcation during the stop])ages the air pump is so arranged that it can be operated also by means of 
a crank. To prevent violent motion of the water the air above the water in the tank is kept at a slight 
pressure, this lieiiig regulafed by a suitable escape valve in the roof of the tank. 

SHIPPING LIVE LOBSTERS. 

1 

III shipping lobsters alive well-smacks are employed to a. great extent where the 
transportation is iu large quantities from one part of the coast to another, but much 
of the coastal shipments, as well as the great buUc of those overland, are made in 
barrels. Flour barrels holding about 140 jiounds, or sugar barrels with 185 pounds 
capacity, are emiiloyed, in tlie bottoms of which several holes are bored to alford 
drainage. In placing the lobsters in the barrels, each lobster is seized by thecarapax, 
the tail is bent up uuder the iiody, and it is placed in the barrel with the back ujiper 
most, being packed quiiikly and snugly together, so that they can not move from the 
position in which they are placed. Unless the weather is cold along, narrow block of 
ice, weighing from UO to 10 pounds, is placed iu the center, its length following the 
axis of the barrel. On top of the lobsters a handful of seaweed is placed, and this is 
covered with 5 to 20 jiounds of crushed ice, and the whole is inclosed by sacking 
secured uuder the ux)per hoop of the barrel. Packed in this way, the lobsters readily 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 351 

survive a trip lasting three or four days. Some dealers liave tried separating the 
lobsters from the ice, using for this purpose ;i long, narrow box, divided transversely 
into three compartments, of which tlie uiiildle is much the largest, and in tliis tlie 
lobsters are placed, while the ice is jiut in the two smaller compartments; but lobsters 
do better when in contact with the ice, the moisture appearing to be necessary for 
their preservation. 

The United States Fish Commission has successfully carried live lobsters in its 
transportation cars for distances upward of 3,0(10 miles. The method pursued is 
tlius described on pp. 243-244 of the rei)ort for 1897: 

Large, mature lobsters, on long trips, are packed in seaweed in wooden trays about 6 inches high 
anil of a size couvenient for handling. Strips of wood attached to the bottom of trays have open 
si>aces between them to allow air circulation. About 2 inches of seaweed are spread on the bottom 
of the tr.ay and the lobsters placed on it with their claws toward the outer ends, so that they can not 
injure each other, and the trays are then filled with seaweed. Thej' are packed in tlie refrigerator 
compartments, and the temperature of the air is kept, if possible, at from 40^ to 4S F. A supply of 
salt watiT, liltered through cotton, is taken along, and the lobsters are sprinkled with it three or four 
times a day, and they are also daily overhauled and repacked. If the desired temperature is main- 
tained, 50 to 60 i)er cent can be carried for five or six days. 

Attempts have been made to ship live lobsters in sea water by having a water tank 
with a series of shelves eitlier communicating or separate, with supply ami di.scliarge 
pipes connecting with the shelves, so that the lobsters on eacli shelf may be kept suj)- 
plied with fresh sea water. This apparatus was intended especially for transirorting 
lobsters on sliijjboard to England, but it has not been used to any gieat extent. 

The following article from the Vanadiau Gazettf, of London, contains an account 
of the experiments with it: 

The t'anadian lobster has long been well known and appreciated in F.nglanil, but only in its pre- 
served slate, packed in the tins familiar to all housekeepers. A snccessiul attempt has just been made 
to import live lobsters from Canada, where they are aliuiidant and cheap, to England, where they are 
so dear as to render tliem a positive luxury. Many attempts liave been made at ilitierent times to land 
live CaiNulian lobsters in England, but none of them had jiroved su'cessfnl, owing to various causes 
too numerous to explain here. The idea was, however, loo good, too tempting, to be definitely aban- 
doned, and experiments were constantly being made, though with but little success. Finally Messrs. 
Arthur and Harold McGray instituted careful inquiries in the principal lobster districts, the result of 
which led them to the conclusion tliat the methods adopted by previous shippers had been defective, 
owing to their ignorance of the habits and reiiuireineuts of the lobster. These shippers had simply 
placed the fish in large tubs, renewing the salt water at frei|uent intervals. This was ilearly insufh- 
eient, for the lobsters invariably died within 12 or l", hours. INiving concluded their inijiiiries and 
carefully tabulated the inf rmation they had obtained, Messrs. Mc<iray coniineneed to experiment 
with a system entirely difterent, devised by themselves. This improved apparatus, which .iiipears 
simple in itself, is the outcome of patient observatimi and study of the habits of the lobster at various 
points along the coast It enables the crustaceans to continue while in trausnort an almost identical 
mode of lifo to that lid by them at the bottom of the sea. This' system constituted the inventor's 
si'cret, which we cannot of course divulge at thc^ prc-seut moment. They commenced with ten lobsters, 
which they placed in their improved receptacle and contrived to keep them alive for 4^1 hours. This 
was a decidcMl improvement on the results previously obtained by other merchants. Thus encouraged, 
they eontiniied their experiments with successive series of lobsters. In the course of the summer of 
ISill thiy succeeded in keeping them alive 5, 8, II, 13, and ultimately 18 days. These exiierimeiits, 
diversified by innumerable incidents, trials, failures, and partial successes, were coiidiicted on board 
a lightship stationed ofi Barrington, with water always taken from the bay and naturally of about 
the same tenipcrature. An important point was thus established — lobsters could be kept alive for 18 
days on board a stationary ship. 



352 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

The qucstirpu then arose, would similar lobsters live tho same length of time ou board a ship 
crossing the Atlantic, and in water constantly ch;iugiug in tcmiierature ? Messrs. McGray were quite 
convinced that they would. They, therefore, arranged to ship 50 lobsters by the steamship Historian, 
running from Halifax, Nova Scotia, to London direct. The passage was expected to occupy 14 days. 
This was more than sufficient to thoroughly test tlie system, seeing that steamers are available which 
make the passage in 10 days. Tlie ship left Halifax at 8 a. m. on Thursday, December 10, Mr. Harold 
McGray being on lioard to personally conduct the experiments. The lobsters were shipped under 
rather unfavorable circumstances, they having then been out of water for 24 hours. The losses 
during the voyage were as follows: Ou the first day 2 lobsters died; on the fifth day, 4; on the sixth 
day, 1; on tlio seventh day, 3; on the eighth day, 1; on the ninth <lay, 1; on the twelfth day, 2. 

The fifth day a receptacle containing 1.5 lobsters was swept overboard during a southwest 
hurricane. The first 2 deaths were due to the unsatisfactory condition of the fi.sh when shipped; the 
next 4 were Ivilled by the rapid change in temperature during tlie passage across tlie Gulf stream; 2 
died from injuries iufiicted by larger and stronger ones, while the remainder <lied from some unknown 
cause. 

On leaving Halifax the temperature of the water was 44", and this was maintained for 4 days. 
On the banks of Newfoundland it varied from 45"^ to 48", while, on arriving iu the Gulf stream, it 
suddenly rose to 6,5". Mr. McGray was naturally anxious to ascertain the ell'ect produced on the 
crustaceans by this rapid rise in temperature. Four of them succumbed, as we have said; but the 
rest remained in good condition. 

Strange to say, the cold air and the warm water exercise an equally fatal efl'ect on these delicate 
fish, accustomed to live in depths where the air never penetrates, .and where the water never rises 
above a certain temperature. Another curious point was that they traveled the entire di.stance — 
2,800 miles — without requiring anj'thing in the shape of I'ood. When at the bottom of the ocean they 
eat fish, and when brought to the surface to be kept for a certain time they can be fed on oatmeal. 
They would, of coiuse,,eat fish, but it has been found that they light for this food like hungry wolves, 
biting and serionslj- injuring one another. To avoid all possible risk Mr. McGray decided to give 
them nothing to eat and found that they still remained iu good condition. 

Up to the time of the arrival of the shipment in the Victoria docks, at noon on December 2t;, 
everything had come up to the expectations of the exporters. Unfortunately, however, they reached 
Loudon just at the time when, owing to the Christmas holidays, the markets were closed for 3 days. 
They had consequently to bo kept on the ship for nearly 2 d.ays, until the morning of Jlonday, 
December 28, and the wati.T iu the dock had to be used in the endeavor to keep them alive. That 
dock w.ater, helped by the fog, killed all but four. It will, however, be admitted that these (jiiite 
exceptional cinnmstauces do not detract from the value of the experiment, as showing that live 
lobsters can be brought to this country in a marketable state, and Jlr. McGray is confident, from the 
experience he has gained, that the next shipuient will establish beyond doubt the feasibility of a 
successful and profitable trade. 

The practicability of the transport of live lobsters having been thus far demonstrated, the 
promoters will later on arrange fur the accjuisition of a 15-knot boat specially fitted with the necessary 
.apparatus for the conveyance of live lobsters in large (juantities aiross the Atlantic. This will enable 
them to supply the m.irkets of London and Paris with tirst-class lobsters delivered alive in those cities 
at less than half the ])riie now paid for English lobsters of equal (|uality. 

Mr. Adol|)h Nielsen, flslieiy expert conneiited with the Newfoundland Fishfries 
Commission, thus discusses the priicticability of shiijpiiig live lobsters to Europe: 

The exportation of lobsters alive to England and the European Continent is .a matter which has 
occupied my attention very much, and is worthy of the Fishery Commission's greatest .attention, 
beeau.se if it could be carried oat successfully it would mean a large increase in the value of the 
lobster fishery. The greatest dillieulties to be overcome iu carrying lobsters .alive in large quantities 
for a long distance is to prevent them from crowding together on top of each other if shipped in bulk, 
in which way a large number of tlieiii suffocate, .and to keep them alive for any length of time in hot 
weather iu the summer, esiiecially in water of a high temiieratiire. Several experiments have been 
made iu the United States with shipments of lobsters alive in the hot season iu vessels built for the 
purpo.se, fitted out either with wells or after other plans, but as far as I am aware the attempt has not 
yet been successful. I saw a few years ago <a steamer fitted out to carry lobsters alive from Nova 
Scotia to the States. She had her hold divided into compartments, which were intended to he filled 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOL). 353 

■with the live stock. Along the keelson was laid a pipe through which w:iter forccil in from the liow. 
This pipe was fiirnishecl with a valve so that the water could he shut off and let in according to wish. 
From tills main supply pipe smaller jierforated pipes were laid around the hottom of each < ompart- 
ment. The idea of this system was to obtain a strong current of water upwanls, which it was tlionglit 
would keep the lobsters from (■rr)W(ling together on top of each other and smothering. I was informed 
that this system worked well enough in a cold season, l)ut uoticeil myself that it was condemned in 
the summer months, and that the lobsters were packed in boxes with ice and shipped away to the 
States in this way in the aamo steuuer. The diffiiuilties in keeping t\w lobsters from crowding 
together and smothering, and in keeping the water cold in a vessel while crossing the Atlantic, I think 
could easily be overcome, and I even think it would be sulKcient to bring the temperature of the water 
down while crossing the Gulf Stream in the summer months. 

My plan would be to divide the hold of the vessel into compartments and have each compartment 
again floored over with bnards 3 to 4 inches a]>art through its whole height. These boards could be 
put down and fasteneil according as the vessel was loaded, and taken up according as it was dis- 
charged. In this way the difficulty of keeping the lobsti'rs from crowding on top of each other would 
be overcome. The height of water in the compartments could be regulated according to wish while 
loading or discharging. \ij means of refrigerators tht^ temperature of the water could be brought 
down at a little expense whenever it was found too liigh. In this way I am of opinion that lobsters 
could be kept alive in good condition for a considerable length of time. Steamers would be prefer- 
able to .sailing vessels. The collection of lobsters could easily be arranged by haviug fixed stations 
in a bay, at which the vessels cimld call and take in their cargoes, and I am sure there would not 
be much trouble, nor would it take a long time to secure full loads when everything was well 
arranged. • » » With the great demand and high ]irice8 jiaid for lobsteis alive in England and 
on the Continent, there is the best reason to anticipate that a large and ])rolitahle business could bo 
done in carrying these crustaceans across the Atlantic alive. When it can pay English people to send 
their vessels up to the western coast of Norway, where the lobsters are far from plentiful and where 
only a limited quantity can be secured, and purchase there at a high ligure and carrj' them alive to 
England every year, it is reasonable to presume that it would pay very much better to ship them from 
Newfoundland, where they can be secured in much larger quantities and at a very small cost, if the 
difficulty in bringing them across the Atlantic alive can be overcome. (Report of Newfoundland 
Fisheries CVmimissiou for ls;)0, i)p. 54-56.) 

While lobsters are generally shipped alive, yet some are first boiled and then 
cooled and placed in barrels or boxes, and if the weather be warm some ice is tidded. 
Boiling before shipment is applie<l to about one eighth of the lobsters handled on the 
United States coast. They are boiled in salt water in a covered box, to which steam 
is admitted for 20 or 30 minntes, the temperature being about L'SOo F. On removnl 
they are carefully folded and phiced in piles like cord wood for cooling, when they are 
packed in a niiinner similar to live lobsters. They will keep a week or longer when 
well iced. Only live lobsters are boiled, for after death the muscles so relax that the 
fibers become short and the meat crumbles, not haviug suHicii^nt tenacity to hold 
together, and the tail bends readily upon slight pressure. Lobsters that die before 
being cooked are so much loss, since they are not then suitable for food markets. 

SHIPPING LIVE OYSTERS AND CLAMS. 

While the great bulk of oysters and clams produced in this country are opened 
before being marketed, yet there is an extensive trade in these mollusks in the shell, 
not only at markets near the source of supply, but at points quite inland, and even in 
foreign countries. When out of their native element, oysters and clams will ordinarily 
live only a few days, and in order to retain them alive during shipintMit and in storage 
prior to consumption it is necessary to keep them cool and to prevent the loss of liipior 
from the shell. With care they may be retained in this manner for months. Half a 
century ago it was customary with many families in (Jonnecticut and New York to lay 

F. C. U., 1898— 2Li 



354 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

in a supply of oysters every fall for use during tbe winter. Tiled up in some cool 
place, usually in tbe cellar, wltli the deep shell downwards and between layers of 
seaweed, they would live sometimes for three or four months. At present during 
cold weather it is not unusual for them to remain in bulk in the holds of vessels for 
two or three weeks without great deterioration of quality, and they are at times kept 
as long in the holds of the oyster scows in the New York market, or in the cellars of 
other wholesale depots. 

At several points along the Atlantic coast, and especially at Franklin City, Va., 
very convenient floats for storing oysters or clams are so arranged in the water adja- 
cent to the market-houses that they may be raised or lowered by means of windlasses. 
The most convenient size of the floats is 20 or 25 feet long, 8 or 10 feet wide, and 2 or 
3 feet deep, the sides and bottom being of strong slats. Four piles are driven into the 
ground, two at each end of a float, and on these rest the windlasses for raising the 
float when it is desirable to remove the oysters. 

An interesting feature in connection with the marketing of oysters is practiced 
in Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, and a few other localities, viz, the 
"drinking" or "freshening" of oysters. The oysters are removed from the reefs or 
planting-grounds and placed in floats or on private areas near the mouth of a small 
stream of fresh water. Here they at once eject the mud and other impurities within 
tbe shells and clinging to the edges of tbe mantle and gills, and imbibe a large 
quantity of fresh water, improving the color of tbe flesh, making it a purer white and 
bloating it into an appearance of fatness. From 10 to SO hours is the usual length of 
time the oysters remain in fresh water before being marketed. The same result is 
accomplished in some places with tbe aid of platforms of rough planking set in tbe 
river bank, on which oysters are thrown at high tide and are left bare by tbe receding 
tide; a sluicegate is then opened and fresh water is allowed to flow over them. 

A more elaborate affair is constructed in tbe following manner: The shore or bank 
is excavated and piles are driven until a floor can be laid at a suitable level below 
high-water mark. A tight shed is built over this, and on one side a canal is dug, into 
which a boat may run and its cargo be easily shoveled through large openings in the 
side of the shed upon tbe floor within. As tbe tide recedes it leaves the oysters upon 
tbe platform within the shed nearly bare, a depth of 8 or 10 inches of water being 
retained by a footboard at the seaward end of the shed. By an arrangement of sluu'es 
the fresh water is then admitted and the freshening begun, and the bulk of salt and 
of fresh water can be so proportioned as to impart the degr. e of freshness desired. At 
a height of 7 or 8 feet above tbe oyster platform or pen is another platform or garret 
where barrels, baskets, boat ge^r, and other small i)roperty can be safely stowed. 

When oysters are removed from bulk, and subjected to tbe varying conditions met 
with in transportation, greater care must be taken, especially to prevent loss of the 
liquor, and, secondarily, to maintain a moderately low temi)eryture. 

In shii>ping short distances, merely placing tbe moUusks in barrels or in bulk is 
sufficient if the weather is cool. For longer shipments, or in warm weatber, they 
must be packed more carefully, and some shii)pers place each oyster with the deep or 
concave shell underneath and press tbe bead of tbe barrel down tightly. Kefriger- 
ator cars are used to some extent during both warm and cold weather, and when tbe 
destination is reached, if not intended for inimeiliate consumption, oysters should be 
kept at a temi)erature between 35'^' and 45°. If they become frozen they should be 
thawed gradually in a cool place. Oysters will not freeze as readily as clams; and 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 355 

oysters and clams in transit during a snowstorm do not freeze as readily as when tbe 
weather is clear and a stiff" wind prevails. 

The European trade in American oysters depends on shipments of live oysters. 
This began in 1861, and n trade lias been built up amounting to about 100,000 barrels 
annually, small East River and Long Island oysters being selected, averaging 1,200 to 
2,000 to the barrel. The oysters are i)acked as snugly as possible in tbe barrels, 
sometimes witli the more concave shell underneath, to prevent escape of liquor, and 
all are pressed down tightly by the cover, to keep the shells of the oysters closed. 
In shipping, the barrels aie stowed, head up, in some part of the s*^eamer where they 
may keep cool, and two or three weeks frequently elapse from the time of gathering 
them until their bedding or consumption in England. 

A large proportion of the oyster trade on the Pacific coast depends on the trans- 
portation from New York of seed oysters, running from 2,000 to 7,000 to the barrel. 
These oysters are transported during the spring and ftxll, carefully packed in barrels, 
in carload lots, and are usually two or three weeks on the road, being carried on fast 
freight trains. Unless the weather conditions be unusual they survive the journey 
with small loss, nsiially about 10 per cent. It is not considered injurious if the liquid 
about the oysters freezes, ])rovided the moUusk itself does not freeze. In illustration 
of the vitality of these small oysters it is stated that several years ago, in a shipment 
of several carloads, one car was missent through some blunder, and on reaching San 
Francisco, after being two months on the way, the percentage of loss among the oysters, 
which were already partly frozen, was but little more than ordinary. The cost of 
the seed at New York is about $3.50 per barrel, and the transportation charges are 
about $5 per barrel. During some years as many as 100 carloads, of 8.5 to 9.5 barrels 
each, are i)lanted in I'acilic coast waters, i>rincipally in San Francisco Bay. 

In 1882 a patent* was issued for a somewhat unique method of preparing oysters 
and other moUusks for long shipments. It consists in binding the shells firmly 
together, while the mollusk is fresh and alive, by means of a wire or wires made to 
embrace the shells between which the animal is contained, the ends of the wire being 
secured by being twisted. It is claimed that by this process the natural juices are 
retained and the deterioration in (piality which ensues upon their evaporation is 
prevented. 

Prof, .lohn A. Kyder is (juoted as indorsing the value of the method as follows: 

1 have l^xalllille(l ami hail iu my i)Ossessiou ii nuinl)er of wircil oystei-s, and I am satisfied that the 
oyster can be preserved, when the shells are thus wired, for a considerable length of time. I liave 
earefully examined oysters, whieh I am satisfied have been wired for KO day.s, and I tinil that their 
vitality is fully i>reserved and the oyster in no way deteriorated in ipialitj- or flavor. I think the 
process of priservinj; oystirs by placing a wire arounil them is a iiractieally useful process, and, iu my 
opinion, would lead to the transportation of oysters to distant points as an article of commerce, whi'n 
it wouhl ofherwise bo impossible to transport them alive iu the shell. 

The method was employed on a small scale in Pliiladclpliia for several years, and 
in 1888 a stock company was formed and a plant established at Cape Charles, Va, At 
first the work of wiring was done with pliers, but in 18'J0 S[)ecial machines were intro- 
duced, by means of which one man has been known to wire 48 oysters in a minute, 
but the average is much less. The .sliiiitiieiits extended (juite over the country in an 
experimental way, many being sold ofi the Pacific coast. A few oysters are yet shipped 
iu this manner, but the i)ractice has not come into gei eral use. 



•No. 2(J5255, dated October 3, 1882. 



356 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

A number of other methods have beeu proposed for fastening the shells of oysters 
together, such as inclosing them in a batter of plaster of paris or similar material,* 
securing a rivet of soft iron through the nib or bill,t inserting a plug of hard wood or 
other suitable material between the shells immediately in the rear of the hinge,| etc. 

A railroad car for the special transportation of live oysters, invented by Mr. A. 
E. Stilwell, of Kansas City, Mo., has been used to some extent during the last year 
or two on the Kansas City, Port Arthur and Gulf Railroad. The interior of the car 
is 34: feet long, 8 feet wide, and 4 feet high, the space being divided into four compart- 
ments, each of which has two ventilators in the top through which the oysters are 
loaded, and two unloading spaces in the side. The Hoor and sides of the car are 
constructed of 3-inch white pine, calked and pitched in the manner of ships, so as to 
make the compartments water-tight. These compartments are first nearly tilled with 
oysters, and then sufficient sea water is added to cover them. 

SHIPPING LIVE CRABS. 

Hard crabs require little care in packing and shipping. They are placed, back 
up, in barrels or boxes, usually without ice if the weather be cool, and covered with 
cloth. Little mortality occurs if their destination be reached in two or three days. 
But during warm weather a block of ice, weighing 5 to 15 pounds, is placed in the top 
of the barrel and separated from the crabs by a double handful of wet seaweed. The 
receipts of hard crabs in the markets are quite extensive, the supply being obtained 
at various points along the coast, but principally from the shores of Chesajjcake Bay. 
From that bay about 75,000 barrels are marketed annually, each barrel holding from 
200 to 300 crabs, which weigh about 75 pounds. 

Much greater care is required in handling soft-shell crabs. This industry origi- 
nated about 1873, and it has reached its greatest development at Crisfield, Md., but 
supplies are received al.so from New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, Louisiana, and 
various other points. The soft shell and "peeler" crabs are caught together, the 
former being shipped at once and the latter impounded until after the shedding 
process and then shipped to market. The present trade amounts to about 1G,0()0,000 
crabs annually, worth 2 or 3 cents at the fishing port, and from 3 to 10 cents each in 
the retail markets. The peeler crabs are impou7ided in floats made of light plank and 
scantling, with plain board bottoms and latticed sides. The size of the floats varies 
somewhat, but most of those at Crisfield are 20 feet long, 3 to 5 feet wide, and 15 inches 
deep, with a projecting ledge at halt their height corresponding to their water line. 
The average value is about $2, with a capacity for .JOO or 400 crabs each. They are 
frequently inclosed by a board fence, which serves as a breakwater. The floats are 
visited three or four times daily, and the crabs that have shed since the last visit are 
taken out and at once marketed. 

The following, in reference to the live-crab business, taken from an article by 
Hugh M. Smith, in the Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission for 1880, is of 
interest in this connection : 

The one factor which, more th.an any other, tends to reduce the jirofits of (he shippers and indi- 
rectly the receipts of the ti.shermen, is the high death-rate among the impoumled crabs. Owing to 
the injuries which many cralis receive in being canght and handled, and, in a measure, to the severity 
of the shedding process, a comparatively large number of crabs die after being purchased by the dealers, 

• See Letters Patent No. 431212, dated July 1, 1890. 

tSee Letters Patent No. 453144, dated May 26, 1891. 

t See Letters Patent No. 459220, dated September 8, 1891- 



PKESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 357 

and are a total loss. As an illustration of tlie Tincortainty of the business and of the risks which the 
dealers have to run at times, it may he stated that of 3,U'tKI crabs jiurchased hy a firm one day in .Inly, 
1888, no less than 3,000 died before shipment. Tliis, of course, is au unusually great loss, and is not to 
be taken as a basis, although the individual dealers estimate their losses at from 10 to 30 jier cent, 
and even as high as 50 per cent during certain periods. A few crabs die after leaving the hands of 
the shippers on the way to their destination, bnt this element of loss is being overcome by greater 
care and experience in packing the crabs prior to shipping them. A comparison of the total catch 
with the aggregate shipments for 1888 gives a diti'erence of 628,766 crabs, with a market value of about 
$23,600, which figures represent the mortality and conseijuent losses. The death rate in 1887 was even 
higher than in 1888, being 21 per cent, as against 16 per cent in the latter year. It is impossible to 
determine with accuracy the number of crabs which die during shipment to market. There seems to 
be no remedy for this state of affairs. Although the sea.son of 1888 showed a small but gratifying 
improvement over the previous year, it can hardly be hoped that the mortality will ever be reduced 
below a somewhat high limit, owing to the methods of capture and handling, and to the normal vicissi- 
tudes of the molting process, increased as they are hy the unnatural surronndings and conditions to 
which the crabs are subjected. 

Tbe crabs are shipped to market in crates or boxes. Tlie crates used in the 
Chesapeake region are about 4 feet long, 18 to 24 inches deep, and the same in width, 
and are provided with closely fitting trays, in which the crabs are carefully i)acked 
side by side, with their legs well folded up and their bodies lying obliquely, so tliat 
the moisture may uot run from their mouths, in rows between layi rs of cold seaweed, 
on which finely crushed ice is sometimes placed. The capacity of each crate is from 
8 to 10 dozen, and as tlie craljs possess little tendency to move when once packed in 
position, they remain (iniescent for a long time. The principal markets for soft-shell 
crabs are New York, Philadelphia, Baltiinore, and Washington, but the demand from 
the interior is increa.siug. In .some lo<;alities the crabs are carefully placed in stout 
boxes in rows and tiers or layers separated with cold, moist seaweed, and with crushed 
ice in the top of the box over all, the entire contents being so arranged that the 
respective positions of the crabs can not be disturbed. 

TERRAPIN AND TURTLES. 

Among fishery products that are nearly always marketed alive are the various 
species of edible terrapin and turtles. These reptiles are remarkable for their tenacity 
of life; with very little care they may be retained alive for six months or more. In 
the Middle Atlantic States terrapin caught in summer or fall are usually placed in 
dark inclosures, as in cellars, with a quantity of seaweed or grass, into which they 
may burrow, and without food or water they are kept in excellent condition until the 
following spring. 

it may be remarked incidentally that terrapin and certain kinds of fresh-water 
fish, as catfish and pike, may be frozen alive in a block of ice, and kept there for 
several days at least, and on thawing the ice the animals are found to be unharmed. 
I am not aware that experiments have been made to determine how long they will live 
under these circumstances or the lowest temperature they will stand. 

There are numerous inclosures along the Atlantic coast where terrapin are con- 
fined throughout the year for growing and breeding purposes, but this interesting 
feature of our fisheries is scarcely within the scope of the present chapter. 



any HULLKTIN OF THE UNITIC!) STATE^i FISH COMMISSION. 



REFRIGERATION, OR PRESERVATION BY LOW TEMPERATURE. 



The temperature of fish, unlike that of mammals and other warm-blooded animals, 
(toriesponds to that of the medium in which they live. The atmosphere during the 
day being usually wanner tlian the seas and rivers the temperature of fish is generally 
increased on their removal therefrom and their coiiseciuent deatli, whereas in case of 
most land animals deatli usually results in a decrease in the temperature. Thisincrea.se 
in temperature, together witli the delicacy of the texture of Hesh and the very large 
number of bacteria in the atmosphere to which the flesh is unaccustomed, makes fish 
extremely susceptible to putrefaction .soon after life is extinct, especially if there be 
considerable moisture in the stomach cavities. In order to overcome this tendency 
it is important, in case fish are to be used fresh, that the temperature be kept at a low 
l)oint while tliey are awaiting consumption. As the markets are generally situated at 
some distance from the sources of supi)ly, preservation for a short time is a necessity, 
and for this purpose the application of low temperature is so general that it is almost 
coextensive with the fresh-fish trade in this country. 

The importance of this method of preserving fisli is not readily overestimated. 
It has resulted in a wonderful development of the Gulf and South Atlantic fisheries; 
and, indeed, without its agency the fishery resources of tliose regions would be of 
comparatively little value. It has enlarged and widened the general fishery trade 
so extensively that at present salmon fresh from the Columbia liiver, halibut from 
Alaskan waters, and oysters from Chesai)eake Bay and Long Island Sound, are sold 
throughout the United States and in foreign countries, and numerous other fishery 
products are marketed thousands of miles from the source of supply, and for weeks 
after their capture, in condition not dissimilar to that wlien removed from the water. 

It is only within the last half century that much attention has been given to the 
fresh-fish traile. Prior to 1830 it was of very limited extent, being confined during 
the warm months to a retail business in the towns near the fishing ports, while in 
winter the fish were frozen naturally and transported to the neighboring markets, 
the business being largely in the control of peddlers. Following the introduction of 
ice, about ]83(», the handling of fresh fish developed more extensively than any other 
branch of tlie fishery industries, and at present tte quantity of fish marketed fresh 
in the United States is much greater than the quantity placed on the market in all 
other conditions. The increase in this trade is one of the most noticeable features 
ill connection with the fishery industries. An important factor in developing and 
maintaining it is the improvement in transportation facilities — not only on shore but 
also in bringing fish from the sea to the fishery ports, the improvements in railway 
Iratfic, and the addition of fast types of vessels. This feature of the trade, however, 
lA scarcely within the scope of the present paper, as it does not tend to preserve the 
product, although it serves better than methods of preservation. 



PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 359 

The processes geuerally employed for retardiug putrefaction in flsh by low temper- 
ature are (I) simple cooling with block or crushed ice, (2) open-air refrigeration during 
cold weather, and (3) artiticial freezing and subse(iiieut cold storage. The first 
process is employed quite generally throughout all countries in whi(!h ice is obtain- 
able, in transporting the flsh from the source of supjdy to the wholesale markets and 
thence to the retail stauds, and in preserving the flsh while awaiting immediate sale. 
The second is used principally in the winter herring and smelt trade with the British 
North American Provinces, and the third in preparing them fresh for very long ship 
ments and in storing them for several weeks or months to await a better market. 
All of these methods are of comiiaratively recent develoj)ment, the oldest in general 
use — cooling with ice^being used commercially only about 70 years, and doubtless 
none of them have yet reached tlieir highest development. 

COOLING FISH WITH ICE. 

Probably half of the fishery food-products in the United States are preserved in 
ice for transportation to the markets and in holding them for immediate sale, and this 
is also true with respect to England and possibly some other countries of northern 
Europe. The process does not result in freezing the flsh, the resulting temperature 
being never less than .'52° F. The ice adds greatly to the expense, esi)ecially in 
transportation, and confines the process to ])reserving fish for brief periods of time. 

The use of ice for preserving flsh in the United States began in 1838, when a 
Gloucester smack is reported to have carried ice with which to preserve the halibut 
dying in the w ell or killed bclbrc being jjlaced there. For a number of years there was 
a strong prejudice against iced fish, almost equal to the present opposition to frozen fish, 
and it was not until 1845 that it became common for vessels to carry ice as a preserva- 
tive. (Jare was at first taken that the ice be kept separate from the fish, being i)laced 
in a corner of the hold. It was soon found, however, that stowing the fish in crushed 
ice did not materially injure them, and this method was soon in general use and 
largely superseded the trade in live flsh north of Cape God. 

For many years after ice was introduced in the vessel fisheries it was still thought 
inadvisable to shi|) iced flsh inland, and not until 1858 could New England dealers be 
induced to experiment in sending them as far as New York Gity, but as the experiment 
was successful a large trade was quickly developed, and iced fish are now shipped to 
all parts of the United States. 

The usual method of applying the ice is to crush it and mix it with the fish in 
successive layers of ice and fish. The ])rocess requires no great skill, yet there must 
be a good knowledge as to the quantity of ice necessary, the most economical size 
of the jiieces, the convenient form of the receptacle, and the manner of packing — all 
of whicli depend on the kind and quantity of fish, the length of time for which they 
are to be held, and the temperature of the atmosphere. Fresh fish should have the 
very best of care in handling at the originating point, be promptly and thoroughly 
chilled, and so placed in the shi))i)ing box or barrel that bruising and the possibility 
of an increase in temperature are reduced to a minimum. It is advisable tliat fish 
be killed immediately after capture, as this prevents their thrashing about and bruising 
themselves, and they remain firmer and bear shipment better than those allowed to 
die slowly. Bleeding the fish is very frecjuently advantageous, but it is rarely done 
unless the fish are to be dressed. The ])ractice of piling freshly-caught fish en masse, 



360 BULLETIN OF THK UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

one upon the other to the depth of several feet, is extremely objeetiouable, especially 
when the weather is warm; since it nn necessarily bruises and heats the fish, causing 
putrefaction to set in niucii earlier than would otherwise be the case. Absolute clean- 
liness is essential at every stage in handlinf;- fish, care being taken to keep the 
market houses and the shipping boxes or barrels free from every particle of putrefying 
refuse, otherwise the fish will become infected with bacteria already developed and 
natural i)utrefac.tion will be thereby accelerated by several hours. To secure the 
highest degree of cleaidiness all stationary storage compartments should have metal 
linings, since the wooden walls and floors of the compartments furnish a lodgment 
extremely favorable to the developed bacteria. 

Much dirt'erence exists as to the dressing of fish before shipment to the wholesale 
markets, but in general it is best to ship them round, or just as they come from the 
water. The choice grades of fish should never be eviscerated or beheaded when 
intended for the fresh trade; but cod, haddock, bluelish, lake trout, and all large fish, 
such as halil)ut, sturgeon, etc., are usually dressed before delivery. In every case 
putrefaction would be retarded longer if the viscera were removed; but the round, 
plump apiiearance of the tish is thereby imi)aired, and in case of certain species, as 
shad and herring, the iocs, which arc highly prized, would thereby become wasted. 
Dressing the fish also decreases the weight 15 or liO per cent, and sometimes even 
more, and a correspondingly higher price is expected for the dressed fish than for the 
round. The practice varies not only in different localities, but in the same locality 
at different seasons of tiie year. Mackerel caught iu the vessel fishery between 
June 1 and October 1 are usually dressed by drawing the viscera out through the gill- 
openings, whereas those taken during the spring and fall are generally iced round. 
The whitefish received at Detroit and some other lake ports are commonly split and 
eviscerated, except that Lake Brie whitefish are nearly always sold round. These are 
caught mostly in the fall, when they are full of spawn, and if eviscerated they would 
decrease about 24 per cent in weight, and, moreover, many customers desire the spaw'u. 
The yellow pike are received round mostly, but those coming from the Dominion of 
Canada are usually dressed, iu order to lessen the import duties. 

The importance of the careful handling offish and their arrangement in the ship- 
ping boxes is scarcely appreciated by the majority of the fishermen. In discussing 
this subject iu the National Fishery Congress, at Tampa, in January, 1898, Mr. E. G. 
Blackford, of New York, said : 

As an example of the imreaseJ returns to the shippers from careful liaudling, I call attention to 
the fact that certain shipments of shad, going to the New York market from North Carolina, bring from 
25 per cent to 40 per cent more than other shad from the same locality. For instance, a certain 
shipper from Albemarle Sound, North Carolina, pursues the following method: His shad are carefully 
taken from the nets and placed in a cold room until thoroughly chilled, then packed in boxes; first a 
layer of fine ice, broken into lumps no larger than chestnuts, is placed iu the bottom of the box; then 
the shad are placed in rows, lying on their backs, making a complete layer on the ice; then a layer 
of tine ice is spread over the bellies of the shad, and on this layer is another row of shad; all the shad 
.are packed in a similar way ; then the top of the box is filled with fine ice and the cover nailed 
securely on. These shad reach the New York market in a perfect condition, and so well known has 
this shipper's mark or brand become that buyers are always on the lookout for this particular l)rand, 
and these shad are the first sold and bring the highest prices. On arriving in New York, the fish 
have not moved from their position iu the box, the ice is still intact, and on opening the box we find all 
the fish to be iu a jierfect condition, each scale undisturbed,, and the whole presenting the appearance 
of a glistening jewel just taken from a casket. (Bull. U. S. Fish Commission, 1897, pi). 157-158.) 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 361 

No matter what kind of fisli are shipped, they should be thoroughly ohilled before 
being placed in the shii)ping box or barrel, whenever the time will admit. It too 
fre(iuently haijjiens that fishermen place the lish in shipping packages immediately 
after their capture or after they have lain in the boat several hours exposed to the 
heat of the sun. Having to contend with the warmth of the lish as well as the atmos- 
pheric heat, the ice packed with the lish melts very rapidly, whereas if the fish had 
been chilled before being i)aeked they would carry for a much longer time, and less 
ice would be necessary iu the shipping package, resulting in reduced transportation 
charges. Cooling the fish is generally best accomplished by laying them thinly on a 
clean floor or platform in the fish-house anil spreading finely chiseled ice over them; 
but if the air is unusually warm they should be (iooled in a suitably insulated icebox. 

It is of prime importance that the temperature of the fish be reduced as soon as 
jiracticable after they are caught. The sooner they are placed with the ice after coming 
out of the water the longer the fish will carry and the better their condition on reaching 
the consumer. ( )n the death of the fish tlie tissues relax, anil otter a favorable lodgment 
for bacteria, whereas the api)lication of ice as soon as the fish are removed from the 
water hardens the tissues and counteracts the development of bacteria. 

Mr. K. Le Clair, of the IJaltimore Packing and Cold Storage Company, of Minne- 
apolis, Minn., in writing on this subject, states: 

Whild at Liike of the Woods four years ago, during the month of July, when the weather was 
warm, the writer took two boxes in the boat; one of the boxes was lillcd with lish as soon as they 
were taken out of the nets, without ice; the other eoutained aV>out the same quantity of the same 
kind of fish, whicli were immediately iced, while they were yet alive, and a test was made as to the 
keeping qualities of the two. As soon as the boat reached the fish-house where the fish were drisssed, 
tlie un-iced fish were immediately iced after" having the inwards and gills removed, and the fish that 
had been iced in the box were also dressed and treated in the same way as the other un-iced fish were. 
The lisli that were not iced when taken out of the nets becime unfit for human food in six days, and the 
fish that had been promptly iced were kept in the shanty for two weeks and then shipped from Lake 
of tlie Woods here, a distance of lillO miles, in a refrigerator car, the boxes marked; and when the fish 
arrived they were found to be in good condition, and we reshipped the same fish to Butte, Mont., and 
never had any complaint of them. The time that elapsed from the time that the fish were taken out 
of the water until they were iced in the fish-house was two hours and ten minutes, but the weather 
and water were warm. It therefore is evident that the greater care exercised at the originating point 
as to the proper icing of fish, the better will be the result. 

The quantity of ice used in shipping fish depends on the size of the package and 
the season of the year. During the summer months, for a shipment covering one or 
two days, 50 pounds of ice is generally required to each 100-pound box of fish, more in 
proportion being necessary for smaller packages and less for larger ones. This ice 
should be crushed quite fine, so as to completely surround the fish and yet not bruise 
them. It is generally better to " chisel " the ice than to crush it, especially for packing 
among the layers of fish, since crushed ice is generally somewhat coarse. '• Chiseling " 
consists in planing the ice from a large block by means of a long-handled chisel, the 
face or edge of which is formed by three or four thin, sharp teeth. 

The most usual forms of shipping packages on the Atlantic coast are the flour 
barrel, with 200 pounds capacity, and boxes holding 400 or 500 pounds of fish. The 450- 
pound box, so popular in the Boston wholesale trade, measures 42 inches long, 24 inches 
wide, and 18 inches deej), and the 500-pound box is 48 inches long, 26 inches wide, 
and 18 inches deep. Auger-holes in the bottom of the barrels and the edge-cracks iu 
the boxes suffice for drainage of the water resulting from the melting ice. After 



3G2 BULLETIN OP THK IINITEn STATES ?"ISH COMMISSION. 

placing a shovelful of crushed ice in the bottom of the barrel, about 50 pounds of fish 
are ]>ut in, followed by succeeding layers of ice and flsh, with a top layer of two or 
three shovelfuls of ice. In packing in boxes a layer of crushed ice is ])laced in the 
bottom, another in the middle, and a third on top, the lish being between, with their 
heads toward the ends of the box. During cold weather, or when shallow boxes are 
used, the middle layer of ice may be omitted. 

The arrangement of the flsh in the boxes differs according to the species and the 
individual ideas of the shippers. The common practice is to i)lace the flsh on their 
backs if round, and on their bellies if dressed; but sometimes, in case of small flsh, 
two layers are placed together, backs to backs and bellies to the ice. Cheap fish, 
such as cod, haddock, etc., and other large split flsh are usually not arranged in any 
particular manner, but are permitted to lie in the barrel as tliey fall, while shad and 
other delicate species must be carefully placed. Small or medium-sized flsh are rarely 
eviscerated before being marketed, as they sell much better in the round. 

If the flsh are thoroughly chilled as soon as practicable after removal from the 
water and carefully i)laced in the shipping package, so that they will not be bruised 
or the temperature rise above 40° or 4.")° F., they will generally keep in good condition 
for two weeks or more. 

Natural ice, being usually less cold, is generally more desirable for shipping flsh 
than artiflcial ice, since it gives off its coldness quickly and the moisture coming in 
contact with the flsh acts as a good conductor, and the flsh are more rapidly cooled. 
But as artiflcial ice lasts longer, it is better for longdistance shipments, provided the 
flsh have been thoroughly chilled before being placed in the shipping-box. 

Among the most eflective devices for holding and shipping fresh flsh cooled by 
means of ice is the shii)pingcar used in the trade on the Great Lakes. This consists 
of a large box mounted on a four-wheeled iron truck, the size of the boxes ranging 
from 4 feet long, 2i feet wide, and 28 inches deep, to 7 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 4 feet 
deep, with a corresponding capacity of from 800 to 3,000 jiounds of flsh. The walls 
of the box are made double, of tongued-and-grooved boards, with an intervening air 
space of 2 or 3 inches. The truck wheels range from to 12 inches in diameter. A 
layer of ice is placed in the bottom of the box and then one or two layers of flsh, 
succeeded by alternate layers of ice and flsh, the latter, in case of two layers together, 
being placed backs to backs and bellies to the ice, and the whole covered by a layer 
of ice. Some of the large boxes were formerly so constructed that the upper half of 
one of the sides might be let down to facilitate placing the flsh near the bottom of the 
box. But because of the tendency of this hinged side to become loose, that form of 
box is no longer used, and flsh are placed in the bottom of the box bj' tilting it down 
on one edge, the side forming an angle of 45° with the floor and resting on a triangular 
frame or horse. 

The cars average in value about $25 each, and about 2,000 are employed on the 
lakes. They are used in transporting the flsh from the receiving ports to the large 
wholesale markets and for distributing them to the various inland dealers. When 
emptied, the cars are returned to the shippers. 

The foregoing represents the general methods employed in icing fresh flsh at the 
various marketing centers. In addition to these there are special methods of handling 
certain important varieties of marine jiroducts which experience has proven to be of 
value, such as icing cod, haddock, halibut, mackerel, shad, oysters, etc. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 363 

ICING COD, HADDOCK, AND BLUEFISH. 

During the last thirty years cod and liaddock have largely increased the fresh-fish 
trade. Prior to 1860 haddock was very little esteemed, but at luesent it is the most 
important fish in the fresh -fish markets of the New England States and one of the 
most important in the United States. During 18S9 the quantity of fresh haddock 
received at New England ports aggregated •41,155,481 pounds, and of cod, 30,108,643 
pounds, nearly all being the product of the vessel fisheries. 

In the fresh cod and haddock fisheries the liold of each vessel is generally fitted 
up with twelve to fifteen pens, each about or 8 feet long and 4 or 5 feet wide, with 
capacity for 1 or 2 tons of fish and the necessary ice. When the vessel is making a 
long trip, from 10 to 20 tons of ice are carried, but during cold weather this quantity 
is much reduced. When the fish are received on the vessel the men dress them, 
seizing each fish by grasping it about the eye or some part of the head with the left 
hand and ripping it dowu the throat, removing the viscera, which is thrown over- 
board, while the liver and roes are placed in barrels. The fish are washed in tubs or 
by pouring buckets of water over them as they lie on the deck, and are then ready 
for icing in the pens. A layer of block ice is placed at the bottom of each pen, next 
a layer of fish, backs up, and, sometimes, when the weather is warm, the abdominal 
cavity of the fish is filled with fine ice. A layer of ice is i^laced over the fish and 
about the ends and sides, and successive layers of fish and ice are added with a layer 
of ice on top of all, the ice being chiseled or planed with a sharp dentated chisel 
attached to a long handle. The care taken iu icing the fish conforms to the probable 
lime that will elapse before the schooner reaches port; when the weather is very cold 
and the wind favorable for a quick run to market the quantity of ice used is largely 
reduced or it is even dispensed with altogether. 

The method of icing blueflsh on the New York market vessels differs little from 
the process applied to cod and haddock. The vessels carry 15 to 25 tons of ice each 
in the pens, whence it is removed as the fish are stored. Immediately on landing on 
the vessel's deck the fish are split from the pectoral fin to the vent, the viscera removed 
and the stomach cavities washed thoroughly. At the bottom of each pen is placed a 
layer of block ice, 6 or 8 inches thick, covered with a thin layer of chiseled ice. On 
this is placed a layer of bluefish, backs upward, and inclined slightly on the side, so 
that all moisture may run from the stomach cavity. This is succeeded by alteinate 
layers of chiseled ice and blueflsh until the pen is nearly full, the whole being covered 
with a layer of crushed ice. 

ICING HALIBUT. 

The fresh-halibut industry is one of the most extensive branches of fishery trade 
depending almost entirely on the use of ice. On the Atlantic coast alone about 
10,000,000 pounds of fresh halibut are handled annually, and there is also a consider- 
able trade on the Pacific coast. In the •■arly years of the halibut fishery, on Georges 
and other neighboring banks, no ice was used, the fish being simply eviscerated and 
placed in heaps in the hold. Later, in order to prevent a bruised and compressed 
appearance in those in the lower part of the heap, the fishermen suspended the fish by 
the tails in the hold, this being practiced as late as 1840 in tight-bottomed vessels. 



364 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

From 1835 to 1850 well-smacks were employed, and though they were quite popular 
with New London and Greenport fishermen, they were not generally used on the 
Massachusetts coast. About 1810 a small quantity of ice was generally carried for 
icing the fish accidentally killed, and with the development of the trawl fishery the 
use of ice became general, both on suiarks and on the tight-bottom vessels. At first 
the ice was not placed among the lish, being carried for the purpose of cooling the 
hold, but about 1810 it became customary to crush it and mix it with the fish. 

Tlie New England halibut vessels now usually carry from 15 to 30 tons of ice 
stored iu pens in the liold of the vessel, similar to those used in the haddock fishery, 
and the present method of handling and icing the halibut is as follows: In dressing, 
each halibut is grasped by the gills with the left hand, the head raised from the deck, 
and with quick strokes of the knife the gills are separated from the head and from the 
napes. The fish is then ripped down the belly, and the gills and viscera are removed 
with the left hand. A second operator takes the halibut and witli his bare right hand 
removes the ovaries from their cavities and the blood from the backbone, pressing his 
thumb aloug each side of tlie backbone to express the blood therefrom. The fish is 
then passed to the scrub gang, composed usually of three men. One of these, hooking 
an iron gatfinto the head of the fish and another gaff into one side of the nape, holds 
the fish up and open, while a second workman, with a hickory or oak broom, scrubs 
off all loose blood, slime, etc., from the spawn cavities and the backbone. During this 
process a third man souses water into the fish, com])letely rinsing it out. 

The halibut is next passed into the vessel's hold, which is divided by permanent 
compartments into 10 or 1'2 pens or bins, half on either side of the vessel, with an 
alleyway in the middle. A layer of ice is placed iu the bottom of the bin, and on this 
is placed the halibut in rows or tiers, with heads toward the front and back of the 
bins and tails overlapping in the middle. Tiie abdominal cavity of each fish is filled 
with finely chiseled ice and the fish so placed in the bin that the ice will not spill from 
the cavity. No ice is placed between the fish, as in case of fresh cod and bluefish, 
because of its tendency to bruise the sides of the halibut. As each bin is filled, slide 
boards are placed at the front and a quantity of ice is put about the heads of the fish, 
both in the back and front of the bin, and on top of the fish is a layer to lli inches 
deep. The amount used varies, of course, according to the temperature, much more 
being reciuired during warm weather than when the temperature is low. When packed 
in this nninuer, halibut will keep in good condition for three or four weeks. 

On arriving in port the halibut are removed from the hold of the vessel to the 
fish-house and assorted, the "white," "gray," and "seconds" or "poor" halibut being 
kept separate. The "white" halibut are those having the under side pure white, the 
"gray" are more or less tinged with gray or drab in the same place, while the "poor" 
halibut or "seconds" are such as are slightly tainted in the vicinity of the abdominal 
cavity. The "white" halibut ranges from 3 to 15 cents per pound out of the vessel, 
the "gray" halibut is generally about two-thirds that allowed for white, and "poor" 
halibut sells for about 1 cent per pound. The distinction bttweeu " white" and " gray" 
halibut was made first in 1848, and while fishermen receive much less for the latter, 
little distinction is made in the retail trade between the two, both selling at nearly 
the same price, and it is impossible to distinguish them separately when cooked. 
After assortment the fish are weighed and 11 per cent is deducted as the weight of 
the heads to obtain the basis for settlement with the fishermen. The heads are cut 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PROnUCTS FOR FOOD. 365 

ofi' and sold to oil and fertilizer factories for about $1 per 100 pounds. The lish are 
then placed mostly in stout pine boxes containing each about 450 pounds, and also in 
100-pound boxes and 200-pound barrels. In case a halibut is too long to go in the box 
the tail may be cut oft"; otherwise the tail and tins remain on. As the fish are placed 
in the box, the abdominal cavities are filled with crushed ice, and in summer time the 
fish are surrounded with chiseled ice. The cover is nailed down, the box and its 
contents weighed and shipped to its destination.* 

ICE IN FRESH-MACKEREL FISHERY. 

It is customary for vessels engaging in the fresh-mackerel fishery, especially in 
the spring southern fishery, to carry from 5 to 20 tons of ice, according to the size of 
the vessel and the time of the year. Usually from June 1 to September 30 the fish are 
gibbed, the gills and viscera being drawn out together through the gill-openings, but 
during the spring and fall the fish are iced round. The fish are stowed away as soon 
as practicable after being caught, being packed in bins in the hold of the vessel 
similar to those in the fresh cod and haddock vessels, except that each bin is divided 
horizontally by movable platforms into two or three parts or shelves to prevent 
crushing the lower layers of fish, as would be the case were they the full depth of the 
haddock bins. A thick layer of ice is phiced in the bottom of the bin, and this is 
followed by alternate layers of fish and fine ice, the topmost layer being of ice. 

The extent of icing depends, of course, on the length of time that will probably 
elapse before the fish are placed on the market. Ice-grinding machines are no longer 
carried on any fishing vessels, since they take up much room and the ice may be 
chiseled more ((uickly than ground. Those mackerel caught when the hold is full or 
just before leaving the fishing-ground for niarket are sometimes placed with crushed 
ice in barrels on the deck of the vessel. Each vessel also carries barrels for salting 
such fish as are not to be carried to market fresh. 

Vessels engaged in the salt-niackerel fishery occasionally take fresh mackerel into 
port by placing them, after being gibbed, in bairels of water, but this is practiced 
only to a limited extent. 

ICING SHAD. 

Few species of fish show greater increase in selling price as the result of careful 
handling and icing than the shad, yet in the marketing of few valuable species is 
greater carelessness shown by the average shipper. It frecpiently happens that the 
fish immediately from the water are carelessly i)laced in the shipping boxes or barrels 
with insurticient ice, nuich of which is melted in cooling the fish before the package 
starts on its Journey. Tlie package then being not (juite full, the contents move from 
their respective positions in handling, resulting in loosening the scales and bruising 
the surface of the fish considerably. The shad trade is very large, the quantity mar- 
keted annually on the Atlantic coast of the United States approximating 14,000,000 
in number, or 52,500,000 pounds, nearly all of which are used fresh. 

The following is the best method of handling fresh shad: If i)racticable the fish- 
house should be raised 2 or 3 feet above the water or the sliorc, so that the wind 
may freely circulate and cool the floor. The fish ought to be handled carefully, bruises 

"See the Fishery Industries of the United States, sec. \', vul. 1, pp. 21-22. 



366 



BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 



being avoided as muck as practicable, protected from the heat of the sun, laid on 
the floor as received from the boats, the heads of each row resting ou the tails of 
each preceding row, and a layer of crushed ice 1 or 2 inches thick spread over the 
whole. Tlfere the fish i-einain until it is necessary to place them in the shipping 
packages, which may be boxes or ordinary sugar-barrels. The former are preferred 
if satisfactory shipping rates are secured, but because of more favorable shipping 
rates barrels are more frequently employed. A layer of crushed ice is put in the 
bottom, on whi(;h the shad are placed on their backs, with the heads at the ends if 
boxes are used. This is followed by a layer of tine ice, succeeded by similar layers 
of fish and ice, with a double quantity of ice at the top, the boxes being covered 
with boards securely nailed and the barrels with bagging fastened under the top 
hoop. 

ICING OYSTERS. 

Ice is very generally employed in preserving and shipping shucked oysters to the 
retail trade. During cold weather only a small quantity is used, but the ice bill of 
the oyster-dealers throughout the season is a considerable item. In using ice for this 
purpose it was formerly considered important to keep it separate from the oysters — 
generally by having a separate ice chamber in the package or keg containing the 
oysters. In some packages the chamber occupied one side of the package, or it tilled 
a space entirely surrounding the oysters, but usually the ice was in the central part, 
the oysters tilling the annular space about the chamber. A variety of packages have 
been invented for this i)urpose, diliering particularly in the manner of aflbrding sepa- 
rate access to the two chambers. Many of these have been patented, and for further 
description of them reference may be made to the following United States letters 
patent : 



No. of 
patent. 


Date. 


In favor of— 


No. of 
patent. 


Date. 


In favor of— 


103551 


May 31,1870 


Alfred Booth, Chicago, 111. 


240281 


Apr. 19,1881 


Alvin Sqnires, Hartford, Conn. 


111722 


Feb. 14, 1871 


Do. 


250107 


Nov. 29,1881 


C. A. Sheridan, Detroit, Mich. 


135U83 


Jan. 21,1873 


L. R. Corastock, Baltimore, Md. 


255017 


Mar. 14,1882 


C. L. Pond, BuUalo, N. r. 


142703 


Sept. 9,1873 


James C. Jones, New Tork. 


265137 


Sept. 26, 1882 


Do. 


158089 


Dec. 22,1874 


no. i 


300061 


June 10, 1884 


S. L. Frazer, Toledo, Ohio, 


190333 


May 1, 1877 
Jan. 22, 1878 


Do. 


300476 


June 17, 1884 


0. P. Johnson, AVashiugton, D. C. 


199569 


James J. Phillip.s, Norfolk, Va. 


374119 


Nov. 29, 1887 


M. H. Dotson. Baltimore, Md. 


209189 


Oct. 22,1878 


Frank PfeiHer, Norfolk, Va. 


4054H8 


June 18,1889 


John P. Kuhu, Alton,Ill. 


240143 


Apr. 12,1881 


0. V. Johnson, Cambridge, Md. 


438391 


Oct. 14,1890 


John T. Store, Baltimore, Md. 



A refrigerator oyster shipping package, patented by a leading oyster-dealer, and 
formerly used to a considerable extent, is constructed as follows: 

A slieet-metal cau is employed with a capacity of 20 gallons, Hanged edges projecting from the 
top finis of the can. In the center of the can, extending from top to hottoni, is formed a rectangular 
ice chamlier which is openeil at the top and has four side.i ex]io.sed within the liody and to the contents 
of the can. This chamber is closed by means of a wooden cover of suitable dimensions to fit snugly 
within the Hanged edges of the end of the can over the opening into the ice chamber and against the 
screw-cap, and projecting a little beyond the ends of the Hanges, and secured thereto so as to be easily 
removed. At the op[>osite end of the can a similar wooden cover or guard is fastened, these covers 
also serving to protect the ends of the cau from injury during transportation. The can is placed in a 
wooden case or enveloped with wooden covering to protect it during shipment and to more effectually 
exclude heat from the contents of the can. The oysters are placed in the annular space about the 
ice chamber, this space holding about 15 gallons: the ice chamber is filled with ice and the covers 
fastened, when it is ready for transportation. (See Letters Patent No. 111722, dated February 14, 1871. ) 



PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 367 

The use of thene intricate forms of shipping packages was abandoned several years 
ago, and at present the trade tliroughout the country uses ordinary package-tubs in 
various sizes, ranging in capacity from 1 to 10 gallons, the tubs being returned to the 
wholesalers as soon as the oysters arc sold. The covers are loosely fitted on top and 
fastened by tacking small tin clasps to the tops and sides. Handles are provided at 
the sides of the tubs for convenience in transfer. The oysters are cliilled with chunks 
of ice before being packed for shipment, and when placed in the shipping-tub a block 
of suitable size to last through the journey is added. During cold weather ice is some- 
times omitted, but it is poor economy to stint in its use. The size of the tubs should 
be adapted to the quantity of oysters shipped, so that each tub may be quite full, to 
prevent the agitation or slushing of the oysters. In order to prevent the cutting and 
bruising of the oysters by the block of ice while the tub is being handled and in 
transit, a flexible pocket of cotton cloth, muslin, or other cheap texture is occasionally 
used by some shippers, the block of ice, of a size suited to the oyster package, being 
placed in this pocket and the whole suspended rigidly from the sides of the tub.* 

The oyster tubs are generally shipped in refrigerator cars, tliese leaving the prin- 
cipal oyster markets regularly during certain days of the week. When the weather 
is very cold, the refrigerator car is a protection against the oysters freezing. Fat 
oysters will not freeze as quickly as thin ones, as the latter contain more water. But 
freezing does not greatly injure shucked oysters when mixed with their own liquor, 
provided they are consumed soon after thawing. 

In many localities, especially along the Gulf coast and through the West, a prac- 
tice prevails of shii)ping opened oysters in hermetically sealed sijuare cans, containing 
from 25 to 1 00 oysters, these cans being then placed in boxes with the tops and sometimes 
the sides in contact with crushed ice. This method is not so general as it was several 
years ago, on account of the extra expense incurred, and the condition of the oysters 
shipped in bulk is generally about as satisfactory. 

KEFRIGERATOR CARS. 

The large inland trade in fresh fish and the liability of frozen fish to rapid decay 
when subjected to a higher temjierature have resulted in an extensive use of refrig- 
erator cars for transportation puri)oses. The refrigerator car is little more than 30 years 
old, the first American patent being issued on November L'O, 1807, to J. B. Sutherland. 
His claim covered a car with double walls, roof, and floor, with ice chests at each 
extremity, closed by hanging Haps, and having spaces so arranged as to produce a 
constant circulation of air in the car. The air was admitted at the toi) of the car and 
passed down throngh the ice chamber, and entered the room near the bottom at a low 
tem|)erature. In Mai ch, 1868, George K. Wood, of Morristown, N. J., brougiit out a car 
with a plurality of metallic chambers for the respective leception of way and through 
freight, with an ice chamber above; while the car of A. L. Mc(Jrea, of Chicago (March, 
18C9), had interior movable sections. Numerous other patents followed in quick 
succession, scarcely any of which embody the features of those now in extensive use. 

The following description of one of the most practical of the forms of refrigerator 
car in general use at present gives an idea of their construction : 

TLi^ ice anil salt receptacles are four };alvanize(l-iron cans stroiiglv .jacketed at each end of the 
car, extending from the roof to within 6 or S inches of the lloor, and under tlieni is a i>an to catch 
the drip, the overflow escaping throuj^h au aii'-tight trap. The walls, roof, and bottom are 7 inches 



• See Letters Patent No. 43S391, dated October 14, 1890. 



368 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

in thickness, made with a dead-air space and three 1-inch layers of hair felt, the joints of the doors 
being padded. No air enters the car when closed, and there is no provision for circulation of air 
within the cooling chamber. Each car carries abont 6,000 pounds of <'rusbed ice mixed with about 
600 pounds of fine rock salt, which is entered at the top and tapped down in the cans, after which 
the covers are put on and the roof holes closed. In eight or ten hours the receiving room of the car 
has become chilled, when additional ice and salt is added and the car is ready for the freight. 

Tlie longest transportation of fresh tish in this country is the sending of salmon 
from Columbia River to the Atlantic coast, requiring live or six days. The methods 
are thus described by Messrs. Seufert Bros. Co., of The Dalles, Oregon : 

We ship all our fresh salmon by express for New York and all points east in boxes 44 inches long, 
20 inches wide, and 12 inches deep. We put in each box 175 pounds offish undressed, or Just as they 
leave the water, and 75 pounds of crushed ice in each box. The express company refills these boxes 
daily at certain icing stations along the line, and makes no extra charge on these icings, that being all 
included in the express charge of 8i cents per pound on the net weight of the fish to Chicago, or lOA 
cents to New York, or 7^ cents to the river or Union depot. Council Blnfls or .St. Paul, Minn. In 
shipping carload lots we put 150 pounds in each box, fill the box with Ice, and load 12 tons of fish 
in a car. We use about 8 tons of ice, and these cars .are not opened or re-iced until they reach New 
York, by passenger train service to Chicago and fast freight from Chicago to New York over Erie 
Railway, on Wells Fargo express trains, 30 hours' time. These cars reach New York in 5i days from 
this river. 

The shipment of fresh salmon in carload lots across the continent began in 1884, 
during which year eight carloads of fresh salmon were sent east, all arriving in good 
condition. On account of the high rate for freiglit service in refrigerator cars the 
profits were so small that further shipments were postponed until a reduction in rates 
was made in 1890. 

FREEZING FISH IN THE OPEN AIR. 

In cold countries tlie freezing of fish in the open air during cold weather is a 
natural and doubtless one of the oldest forms of preservation. In the northern por- 
tions of Europe and America fish are fre(iuently preserved in this manner. Prior to 
the use of ice in the United States it was not unusual during the winter and early 
spring for dealers to take fish frozen by natural cold from Boston or New A'ork 200 or 
300 miles inland. But the uncertainty of depending on continued cold weather, and 
the advent of the use of ice and quick transportation, have resulted in an abandonment 
of that trade. 

There is yet a very extensive trade in frozen smelt during the winter, especially 
in December and Jauuaiy. These fish are frozen in Maine and the British Provinces, 
boxed and shipped by steamer or rail to Boston or New York, whence they are supplied 
to the retail trade. During the .season of 1807, 82,o06 boxes, each holding an average 
of 2.J pounds of smelt, were received in IJo.ston. Most of these come from the British 
Provinces, being admitted free of duty, and they are sold from 2 to 8 cents per pound, 
averaging perhaps i cents per pound, wholesale. 

FROZEN-HERRING INDUSTRY. 

The most important industiy depending on open air refrigeration is the freezing 
of herring on the Newfoundland and New Brunswick coasts for the United States 
markets. This is scarcely more complicated than the usual method of packing in 
crushed ice, and not by any means so intricate as the process of mechanical or chemical 
refrigeration now employed in the large marketing centers of the United State.s. It 



PRESERVATION OF FISHEKY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 369 

originated iluriny tbe winter of 1854-55, the itumediate object being to suiiply the 
vessels engaged in the Georges Bank cod (isliery witli bait. At present those vessels, 
as well as those employed in the bluefish fishery, depend almost entirely on this form 
of bait during the winter and early sjiring, and in addition large quantities of frozen 
herring are used lor food. 

The jirocess of freezing is as follows: When the vessel has been moored in some 
cove couveui. nt to the flshiugground, the ballast is thrown overboard, the hold 
sheathed up around the sides with spruce bough.^, and a platform built in the bottom 
of the hold several inches above the keelson. A bulkhead G inches thick, with the 
space in the middle filled with sawdust, is placed across the forward part of the hold 
to separate it from the forecastle. Sometimes the fish are frozen' ashore by the natives, 
a clear, gravelly beach above high- water mark or a surface of crushed snow and ice 
being chosen. But usually the freezing is done on a large scaffolding on the deck of 
the vessel. This scaftblding is generally about 100 feet long by 25 feet wide and is 
built of rough boards, most of which are purchased at Nova Scotia ijoints on the way 
to Newfoundland, they being obtainable much cheaper there than in Gloucester. The 
quantity of fish placed on the scaftbld varies according to the weather. 

When the temperature is little below the freezing point, the fish must be spread 
very thin, iu order that those underneath may be thoroughly frozen; but, with a lower 
temiierature, the fish can be heaped together to the depth of a foot or more, though 
in such cases it is necessary to turn them every few hours. A constant watch must 
be kept to guard against loss from a sudden rise in temperature or a storm of rain or 
snow. The watch usually turns the fish with a wooden shovel or stirs them with his 
feet every few hours, and during a snow storm it becomes necessary to work constantly 
among them to keep them from being covered up. Should the weather become so 
warm that the fish would be thawed by exposure, it is necessary to j)lace them in piles 
and cover them with canvas or other material, again exposing them when the tempei'a- 
ture has fiillen sufficiently. The usual method of ascertaining whether a herring is 
sufficiently frozen is by breaking. If the fish bends at all it is not thoroughly frozen; 
but if it breaks short, like a dry stick, it is ready to be stowed in bulk. 

The herring are roughly shoveled in the vessel, the hold, and sometimes even the 
cabin, being filled, the crew in the latter case living in the forecastle on the homeward 
passage. Formerly the fish were packed in snow, or a considerable quantity of snow 
was placed around the sides .of the hold and the fish heaped together in the middle; 
but for many years this practice has been wholly abandoned, and it is found that the 
fish will keep equally well without the use of snow. 

This trade at present averages about 25,000,000 herring annually, with a valuation 
of $300,000. About one third are used for bait by the Grloucester fishermen, and those 
remaining arc sold for food. The nmrket value varied for many years from 75 cents 
to $.'5 per 100 fish wholesale, while the retail price was about double those figures. 
During the past three years the fish have been sold by weight, two scales being on 
the vessel, one at the main hatch and the other at the aft hatch; the average wholesale 
price during those years has been from $1.25 to $2.50 per 100 pounds. 

Frozen herring form cheap and wholesome food at a season when other fresh fish 
are obtained with difficulty and only at a high iirice. They possess a great advantage 
over ordinary fresh fish iu that they can be packed iu barrels without ice and shipped 
to a considerable distance without danger of loss. With the exception of those sold 

F. C. B., 1898—24 



370 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

in Gloucester for bait, nearly all the frozen lierriug are carried directly to Boston and 
New York, and two or three cargoes are carried to Philadelphia eac^h season. At 
these ])laces they are sold locally and packed in barrels for distribution, and sent as 
far south as Washington, and as far west as the Mississijipi River.* After reaching 
their destination, the great bulk are sold fresh, but some are pickled by the dealers, 
while others are cured as bloaters or hard herring. After being frozen, herring are 
not especially desirable for either of these purposes, as they become soft and the flesh 
is rather dark and unattractive in color 

ARTIFICIAL FREEZING AND COLD STORAGE. 

The artificial freezing of fish and other food products with their subsequent 
retention in cold storage is one of the most recent methods of iireservation, origi- 
nating about thirty-five years ago; and while it has acquired considerable importance 
in certain localities, its practical value is scarcely appreciated by the general public. 
It is applied in the various marketing centers of the United States and to some extent 
in the countries of Europe and South America. Its greatest development and most 
extensive application in the fisheries exists along the Great Lakes in freezing white- 
fish, trout, herring, pike, etc., about 3,500 tons of which are frozen each year. On 
the Atlantic coast of the United States it is used in preserving blueflsh, squeteague, 
mackerel, smelt, sturgeon, herring, etc., the trade in these frozen fish "tailing on" or 
immediately following the season for fresh or green fish. On the Pacific coast large 
quantities of salmon and sturgeon are frozen and held in cold storage until shipped, 
the trade extending to all parts of America and northern Europe. At various points 
throughout the interior of the country there are cold-storage houses where fishery 
products are held awaiting demand from consumers. In Europe there is comparatively 
little freezing of fisli, although the i)rocess is applied very extensively to jireserving 
beef, mutton, and other meat products, and the marlcets of Hamburg and other conti- 
nental cities receive annually several million pounds of frozen salmon from the Pacific 
coast. In England large fish freezers were erected several years ago at Grimsby and 
Hull, but did not prove successful and were finally dismantled. 

By the use of ice alone during warm weather the temperature of fish can never be 
kept below 32° F. While this low temperature retards decomposition, the fish acquire 
a nmsty taste and loss of flavor and eventually spoil. To entirely prevent decomposi- 
tion the fish must be frozen immediately after capture and then kept at a temperature 
of several degrees below freezing. The belief held by some persons that freezing 
destroys the flavor of fish is not well founded, the result depending more on its condi- 
tion when the cold is applied and the manner of such ajiplication than upon the effect 
of tlie low temperature. Fish decreases less in value from freezing than meat does, bui 
it is especially subject to two difficulties from which frozen meat is free; first, the eye 
dries up and loses its shining appearance after a very long exposure to cold, and 
second, the skin, being less elastic than the texture of the fish, gets hard and becomes 
somewhat loose on the flesh. Frozen fish is not less wholesome than fish not so pre- 
served. The chemical constituents are identical, except that the latter may contain 
more water, but the water derived from ingested fish has no greater food value than 
water taken as such. The principal objection to this form of preservation is the ten- 
dency to freeze fish in which decomposition has already set in, and the prosperity of 



' See Fishery Industries of the United States, sec. v, vol. 1, p. 451^56. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 371 

the frozen-flsh business requires that any attempt to freeze fish already slightly 
tainted should be discountenanced. When properly fi'ozen aiul held for a reasonable 
period, the natural flavor of fish is not seriously affected and the market value approxi- 
mates that of fish freshly caught. The process is of very great value to the fishermen 
supplying the fresh-fish trade, since it prevents a glut on the market, and it is also of 
benefit to the consumer in enabling him to obtain almost any variety of fish in an 
approximately fresh condition throughout the year. 

DEVELOPMENT OF COLD STORAGE. 

The first practical device for the freezing and subsequent cold storage of fish was 
invented by Enoch L'iper, of Camden, Me., to whom a patent* was issued in 1861. His 
process was based on the well-known fact that a composition of ice and salt produces 
a much lower temperature than ice alone, this knowledge having been applied for an 
indefinite period in freezing ice creams, etc. 

Thefollowiug is a description of Piper's apparatus and its application: 

The fish were placed on a rack, in a box or room having double sides filled with charcoal or other 
nonconducting material. Metallic pans containing ice and salt were set over the fish and the whole 
inclused. The temporatMro in the room would soon I'all to several degrees below the freezing point of 
water, and in about 24 hours (the mixt-.i re being changed once in 12 hours) the fish would be thoroughly 
frozen. The fish were then covered with a coating of ice by immersing them a few times in ice-cold 
water, or by applying the water with a brush, forming a coating about one-eighth of an inch in thick- 
ness. After the coating of ice was formed the fish were sometimes wrapped in cloth and a second 
coating of ice applied. In some instances they were covered with .a material somewhat like gntta 
])ercha, concerning which much secrecy was exercised. The fish were then packed closely in another 
room, well insulated against the entrance of warmth, by means of double walls filled with some non- 
conducting material. Fixed i)erpen<licularly in the second room were a number of metallic tubes, 
several inches in diameter, filled with a mixture of ice and salt to keep the temperature below the 
freezing point. 

The process was also patented in the Dominion of Canada, and a plant was estab 
lished near Kathurst, New Brunswick, in 1865, the output consisting almost entirely 
of salmon, a large proportion of which were imported into^the United States. In 
order to hold the frozen fish in New York while awaiting a market. Piper constructed 
a storage room in a shop on Beekman street, that being the first cold storage room for 
fish in the United States. The walls of the room were well insulated, and around the 
sides were two rows of zinc cylinders, 10 inches in diameter at the top and decreasing 
in size toward the bottom, connecting at the lower end with a drainage i)ipe. Tlie 
cylinders were filled with a mixture of ice and salt, which was renewed whenever 
necessary. Whatever may have been the imperfections in his process of freezing, the 
system of storage was quite satisfactory and differs little from that in use at the 
present time. Piper refused to sell rights to others for the use of his process, and 
after maintaining a monopoly of the business for three or four years his exclusive 
right to it was successfully contested by other fish-dealers in New York, who applied 
it to storing other fish besides salmon. 

The principal objection to Pipei's process is that the fish are not in contact with 
the freezing mixture during the operation of freezing, and, couseiiuently, too much 
time is required for them to become thoroughly frozen. Several devices have been 
used for overcoming this objection, among which are covering the fish with thin sheet 
rubber or other waterproof material, and packing them in the mixture of ice and salt. 



•No. 31736, dated March 19, 1«G1. 



372 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

The greatest improvement, and the one used almost exclusively when ice and salt 
form the freezing agency, originated in 1868 with Mr. William Davis, of Detroit, 
Mich.,* the description being as follows: 

Two thin slieet-metal pans, or a box in two parts, are made one to slide over the other, the object 
being to place the fish iu one pan, slide the other pan vertically over it, and the box is then placed in 
direct contact with the freezing mixture. Hy having the box constructed in this manner, it is capable 
of being expanded or contracted to accommodate the size of whatever may be placed therein, and 
the top and bottom always be iu contact with the articles to be frozen. After the fish are inclosed in 
the pans, the latter are placed iu alternate layers with layers of the freezing mixture Ijotween au<l 
about them. When the fish are thoroughly frozen they are removed from the freezing pans and placed 
in a cold-storage chamber in which the temperature is kept 12 or 14 degrees below the freezing point. 

Another arrangement for bringing the fish in contact with the ice was devi.sed 
and patented by a fish-dealer of Toledo, Ohio, t as follows: 

A chest is so constructed that cells or compartments of various sizes may be formed in it for the 
reception of articles to be frozen, this being accomplished by having the walls of each compartment 
movable and each separated from the other by l)lock8 of sufficient size to closely contain the articles 
placed therein, usually from 2 to 6 inches, and the freezing being effected by filling the spaces 
between the cell walls with salt and crushed ice. The sides of the cells or compartments are made 
of thin metallic plates, so that the upper end of each pair may be brought together, forming a closed 
compartment, to prevent the entrance of the refrigerating mixture into the fish chambers while filling 
the salt and ice compartments. To freeze a ijuantity of fish by this method, they are placed in the 
open cells or compartments, head downward, as is most convenient. When each cell is full, the top 
edges of the sides are brought together and held in that position by clamps. The spaces between the 
cells, varying from 2 to 4 inches across, are then filled with the freezing mixture aud the cover of the 
chest shut down. The cold produced passes through the wall separating the mixture from the fish 
aud quickly freezes the latter. Provision is made for permitting the water formed by the melting ice 
to flow in grooves to suitable outlets, tlie bottom pieces of the cells keeping the fish dry. When the 
fish are frozen, the cover of the chest is raised, tlie contents removed, and the fish transferred to the 
storage freezer. 

This method of freezing was used only a few years, the pan process being found 
much more practicable. 

With a view to bringing the fish more closely in contact with the freezing mixture, 
some dealers at first used thin sheet-rubber bags, or other waterproof sacks, in which 
the individual fish were placed and then surrounded by the salt and ice, thus exposing 
the entire surface of the fish, resulting in much more rapid freezing. When the 
fish were frozen the sacks were removed and were dipped in water, which thawed them 
sufficiently to permit the fish to be withdrawn. This method was abandoned after 
a year or two. 

To facilitate the shipment of frozen fish iu barrels, Messrs D, W. & S. H. Davis, of 
Detroit, Mich., introduced! a process by which the fish are frozen in circular pans of 
varying sizes suited to the measurements of the barrels. After being frozen, the 
contents of each pan are removeil entire and placed in appropriate position in the 
barrel, and the barrel headed and placed in cold storage. 

In 1877 0. W. Gauthier patented § a modification of the preceding method, using 
thin pliable partitions in the circnlar pans for separating each fisli Ironi its neighbor, 
so that the individual fish in each pan may be packed in the barrel separately. 
None of the last four processes has ever been used to any considerable extent. 



* Letters patent No. 85913, January 19, 1869. 
i Letters patent No. 109820, December ti, 1870. 
t Letters patent No. 165590, dated April 6, 1875. 
§ Letters patent No. 187122, dated February 6, 1877. 



PKESEEVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 373 

As the trade developed, the size of the storage rooms was increased and improve- 
ments were adopted in the arrangement and form of the iceand-salt receptacles and 
ill the method of handling the tish. But the freezing with pans immersed in ice and 
salt, as in the Davis process, and the subsequent storing of them in the manner used 
by Piper, continued without any great modification until the introduction of ammonia 
freezers into the fishery trade in 1892. At that time ice-and salt freezers and storage 
rooms existed at nearly all the fishing ports ou the Great Lakes; eight or ten small 
ones were in New York City, and several were in use on the New England coast. 
Some of those on the (Ireat Lakes were very large, with storage capacity of 700 or 800 
tons or more, and the aggregate storage capacity of all in the country approximated 
8,000 tons. Ammonia cold-storage houses had been established at various places 
along the coast and in the interior during the ten or fifteen years preceding, and in 
these some frozen fish had been stored. But the first ammonia establishment for 
freezing fish exiilusively was established at Sandusky, Ohio, in 1892. The method of 
freezing dift'ers from the former process in that the pans of fish are ])laced on and 
between tiers of pipes carrying cold brine or ammonia instead of being immersed in 
ice and salt. In the storage rooms less difference exists, coils of brine pipes taking 
the place of the ice and-salt receptacles, the blocks of fish being removed trom the 
pans and stored as in the older process. 

DESCRIPTION OF ICE-AND-SALT FREEZERS. 

The outfit of an ice and salt freezer consists principally of temporary stalls or bins 
where the fish are frozen, and insulated rooms where the frozen fish are stored at a low 
temperature. In addition to these there are icehouses, salt-bins, freezing-pans, and 
the various implements for the convenient prosecution of the business. The freezing 
bins are usually temporary structures within the fish-house, and are generally without 
insulation. The wall of the fish-house may form the back, while loose boards are fitted 
in to form the sides and front as the bin is filled, in the manner hereafter described. 
A better way is to build the bins with sides and back 4 or 5 inches thick, filled with 
some uoncimductor, with double or matched floor and with movable front boards. 

The storage rooms are commoidy arranged in a series side by side and separated 
from each other by well-insulated partitions, the capacity of the rooms ranging from 
25 to 200 tons each. The outer walls of these rooms, as well as the floors and ceilings, 
are well insulated, made usually of heavy matched boards, with interior packing of 
some nonconductor ot heat. Among the latter may be mentioned planing-mill shavings, 
sawdust, pulverized cliarcoal, chopped straw, slagwool, etc. Most of the walls are Iti or 
IS inches thick, filled with planing mill shavings or sawdust, and in some freezers the 
damaging elfect of rats is obviated by placing linings of cement between the shavings 
and the board walls. Most of these loose materials have their economic drawbacks, 
chiefly because of their strong hygroscopic tendency, the material losing its insulating 
liower and decaying, this decay also attacking the wood of the walls. Because of this, 
many of the storage rooms recently constructed are insulated by having the walls 
made up of a combination of mineral wool, insulating paper, air spaces, and inch boards. 

The sides, and in some cases the ends, of the room are lined with the iceand-salt 
receivers, consisting of galvanized sheet-iron tanks, 8 or 10 inches wide at the top, 
narrowing to 3 or 4 inches at the bottom, and placed about 4 inches from the wall in 
order to expose their entire surface t^ the air in the room. These tanks open at the 



374 



lUTLLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 



top, which extends above the ceiliug so that they may be filled without openiiij; tlie 
storage room. At the bottom is usually a galvanized-irou slanting gutter, iutu wliich 
the water resulting from the melting ice flows, when(;e it is conducted through the 
floor of the room by a short pipe, protected from the entrance of air at its lower end 
by a small drop cup, into which the brine falls and runs over at the top. In some 
fish-houses this brine, which is otherwise wasted, runs into receiving tanks, where it is 
stored and used as re(inired in pickling fish. The ice-audsalt tanks must be cleaned 
from time to time in order to rid tliem of dirt and sawdust. Their capacity should be 
ill proportion to the size of the room and the excellence of the insulation secured, 
and they should be large enough to render it unnecessary to fill them oftener than 
once a dav, even in the warmest weather. 

The appliances used in the ice and-salt freezers are described at length in the 
account of the processes of freezing and storage (see pp. 377-384). 

While crushed ice and common salt are generally emi)loyed as a freezing mixture, 
numerous other comiiouuds are available. The following compilation gives a number 
of mixtures that may be employed in refrigeration, the initial point in the case of 
crushed ice or snow being 32'^, and in the other mixtures oO'^ F. Most of these have 
as yet been employed only in laboratory practice and for certain special purposes, 
only a few of them having been applied commercially on a large scale. These formuhe 
are obtained mostly from Leask's Ivefiigeratiug Machinery and its Management, pub- 
lished in London in 1895. 



Composition. 


Parts. 


Minimum 
tempera- 
ture. 


Composition. 


Parts. 


Minimum 
temperor 

ture. 




2 

1 

5 
2 
1 

24 

10 

5 

5 

12 
5 
5 

5 
5 
16 

5 
4 


} -^ 
-12 

I —18 

-25 

-10 

} -3 




8 
9 

6 


OF. 
} -» 

1 












1} -12 

1} -23 












Nitric .icid (diluted) 






Ammonium chloride 








8 
5 

7 
4 

4 
3 

3 

4 


) -" 

} -30 
\ —50 
} -51 






Ammoiiium nitrate 








Potassium nitrate 






Calcium chloride, cryatallized 


Sodium sulphate 


Sulphuric acid (diluted) 









DESCRIPTION OF MECHANICAL FREEZERS. 

It is scarcely within the scope of the present paper to enter into a comprehensive 
description of the numerous .systems of mechanical freezers. They are all ba.sed on 
the principle that a liijuid passing into a gaseous state, or converted into a.'kpor, 
carries away a definite amount of heat from the objects by which it is surrounded. 

The compression system is in most general use, and consists of three operations 
following each other in rotation, and which are practically the same in all refrigerating 
machines. By means of a large compression pump, anhydrous ammonia, which is the 
gas usually em^doyed, is compressed to a pressure varying from 125 to 175 i)ounds 
to the square inch. During this operation heat is developed according to the amount 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 37;") 

of the pressure exerteil upon the gas or to the relative volume to which it is reduced, 
and this heat is withdrawn from the compressed gas by forcing it through coils of 
pipe in contact with cold water, the heat being transferred to the water. The gas is 
now ready to assume a liquid state, and in so doing transfers additional heat to the 
water surrounding the pipes. The liquid gas thus obtained is allowed to enter coils 
of circulating i)ipe at a pressure much lower than that required for retaining the gas 
in a liquid state, wliereupon it reexpands and extracts from the pipes and the sub- 
stances surrounding them a quantity of heate(iual to that which was previously given 
np by the gas during the period of condensation and liquefaction. The gas is then 
drawn from the exi>ansion coils by the i>umps at a jiressure of 10 to 15 pounds above 
that of the atmosphere, and is again compressed in the condensing coils at a pressure 
of 125 to 175 ijounds to the square inch, and the same cycle of operations is repeated. 
Various moditicationsof the above, as well as auxiliary processes, have been introduced, 
lint the principles are the same in all comj)ression machines, the ditferences being in 
their application. 

The absorption system, which is comparatively little used at present, is based on 
the fact that many vapors of low boiling point are readily absorbed by water, but can 
be separated again by tlie application of heat to the mixed liquid; and the machinery 
in an absorption system differs from that in a compression plant priuci])ally in the 
substitution of an absorber for the condenser and in applying heat to the ammonia 
water to drive off the anhydrous ammonia at a high pressure. 

Formerly, in order to avoid danger from leakage of gas through the circulating 
l)ipes carrying the cold annnonia, those pipes were not passed through the freezing 
and storage chambers, but were stored in a large tank surrounded by some liquid 
whose freezing ]>oint is very low, such as salt brine, or, when lower temperature is 
desired, a solution of chloride of calcium, and this cooled liquid is pumped through 
pipes circulating in the freezing and storage rooms. The improvements in the manu- 
facture of freezing machinery have resulted in the making of much tighter pipes, so 
that at present in many freezers the ammonia coils pass directly through the freezing 
rooms, and in some instances they also pass through the storage rooms, but brine or 
chloride of calcium circulation is yet preferred for the storage rooms. 

In the mechanical freezing-houses there is a machinery room containing the 
boilers, compression pumps or absorption tank, according to the system employed, 
brine pump, etc. Apart from these and within well-insulated walls are the cold rooms, 
of which there are two kinds — one for the freezing of fish and the other for their 
storage after being frozen, the caiiacity of the latter being usually much greater than 
that of the former. In the freezing-room the circulating pipes containing the cooling 
material are ^ inch to 2 inches in diameter and arranged in shelves or nests with hori- 
zontal layers 1 or 5 inches, and sometimes 10 inches, apart, ranging from the floor to 
the ceiling, the entire room being occupied with these nests, except sufficient space 
for m.-^ving about. These pipes are sometimes made in separate coils, so that if desired 
the brine may be circulated through only a portion of the pipes, and there is generally 
a vertical row of pipes on each side of the freezing-room. The temperature deuends, 
of course, on the quantity of green lish and the progress of the freezing process, but 
with direct circulation, or using brine made of chloride of calcium as the circulatory 
medium, a temperature of — 10° F., or even less, is obtainable. In this room the green 
fish are frozen, and then removed to the storage rooms. 



376 HULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

Tlie storage rooms are constructed similarly to tlie storage rooms in ice-aiul sail 
freezing houses, tlic only difference being tliat circulating i)ii)es are substituted for 
tbe ice-and-salt receptacles. Tbe iiipes in the storage rooms are usually larger, but 
are not so numerous as in the freezing-room. They are arranged at the ceiling, and 
sometimes about the ujjper sides also. 

The freezing and storage rooms have well-insulated walls, ceiling, and floors 
similar to the storage rooms using ice and salt as a freezing agency. The walls are 
sometimes 10 or 18 inches thick, filled with sawdust or planer shavings; but usually 
they are maile up of successive layers of boards, paper, mineral wool, and air space. 
Ill one of the most recently constructed freezing establishments, that of the Cincin- 
nati Oyster and Fish Company, the walls are constructed as follows: Seven-eighth- 
inch boards, insulating paper, J inch boards, 2-inch air space, ^ inch boards, two sheets 
of insulating paper, Jinch boards, 4 inches of mineral wool, ginch boards, insulating 
paper, and 4-inch beaded boards. In the same establishment the ceiling is insulated 
by J-inch boards nailed against the joists, two sheets of insulating jjaper, ginch 
boards, 2 inches of mineral wool, J-incli boards, insulating paper, and Jinch boards. 
On top of the ceiling and between the joists there are 3 inches of mineral wool, J-inch 
boards, insulating i)aper, and 4-incli boards. Tlie floor is insulated by nailing J 
by 3-inch strips between the joists and close to the bottom, on top of which are g-inch 
boards, insulating paper, and 4-iuch boards, the whole being pitched throughout so 
as to make it perfectly air-tight. Then come 2 inches of air space, J-inch boards, 
insulating paper, g-inch boards, 4 inches of mineral wool, |-inch boards, insulating 
paper, J-inch boards, 3 inches of concrete, and li inches of cement, llesting on tlu; 
cement floor are § by 3 inch oak racks, to permit a free circulation of air under the 
fish stored in the room. 

In 1896 there was erected at Goble, Oregon, a freezing and cold-storage plant 
differing from any other in the United States, in that cold air is used as the freezing 
medium. There are similar plants at Montreal and Quebec, and there are several 
used in Great Britain and Australia for refrigerating beef and mutton. 

The following is a description of the Goble establishment: 

The Imilding is 100 feet lougby 52 feet wide, exclusive of tbe boiler and engine rooms, which are 
under auothc^r roof adjacent to tlie main structnre. The first lloor is well insnlated and divided into 
8 storage coniiiartments insulated from cacii other, the dimensions of which are 40 feet in length, 10 
feet in width, and 10 feet in height, the iloor space within each being occupied liy two parallel car 
tracks with an alleyway between. The doors of tlicse rooms consist of IG inches of sawdust, 3 pieces 
of |-inch bard felt and 5 air spaces, lloore<l over with linch plank; and tlie walls have two thick- 
nesses of i'elt and 4 air spaces. The remaining portion of the width of the building, 8 feet on the 
inside, is occupied by a corridor, in which is a car track with suitable turntables leading to each 
track in the storage rooms; and tbe remaining 9 feet net in the length of the building is taken up by 
an elevator, stairway, and tool i-oom. On the fourth lloor there is a tank, 22 feet long aTul tl feet wide, 
tilled with brine cooled by ammonia circulation. In this tank there are 5 disks, 4 inches in diameter, 
revolving on axles running across the tank. The air from the freezing and eold-storage rooms is 
collected and forced over the revolving disks as the brine drops oft', and is then returned by other 
channels to the freezing and storage rooms. 

When the fish, consisting principally of salmon, are received at the dock, they are washed, wiped 
dry, and placed on cars fitted up with 7 galvanizi'd-iron shelves, 5 feet 4 inches long and 3 feet wide, 
the capacity of each car approximating 1,000 pounds, and its cost, with the necessary shelves, about 
$34. When the shelves are filled, the cars are wheeled into the corridor leading to the freezing rooms, 
and then to the proper conqiartmeut, where, still remaining on the cars, they are frozen by the colil 
air forced over and among them. Each room has capacity for 7 cars on each track, or 14 cars in all, 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 377 

witli 7 tons of fish, giving an aggregate freezing c.apnoity in the 8 moms of 50 tons at one time. The 
air introilnceil in these rooms has a temperature of 5- to 10"- F., anil is ch.mgeil every 2 or 3 minutes. 
Freezing eau be accomiilislied in 12 to 14 linnrs, l)ut ordinarily from It to 24 hours are taken for the 
operation to he completed, dejicniling soni('wh,at on the size of the iish. After the fish are frozen, the 
cars are removed to an elevator and run up to the second floor, where the Iish .are glazed, being dipped 
in water, and thus covered with a coating of ice about oue sixteenth of an incli thick. This glazing 
is effected by transferring the tish to racks and tlien dipping them in a tank 20 feet long by 4 feet 
wide, partly tilled with water at ii temperature several degrees below freezing. The Iish are then 
usually wrapped in paper and neatly packed in paper-lined boxes, usually of 250 pounds capacity, 
ready for shipment, and transferred to storage rooms on the third floor, having a capacity for about 
SOO tons. 

In addition to the machinery above described, there are two 80-horsfepower boilers and two 60- 
horsepower engines, with a fire pump capable of delivering 18,000 gallons of water per hour, an ice 
plant with capacity of 20 tons a day, and an auxiliary one with capacity of 3 tons daily. The cost of 
the jilant is said to approximate $45,000. The machinery employees number 4, aud usually there are 
20 men employeil in handling the fish. 

PROCESS OF FREEZING AND COLD STORAGE. 

In freezing fish, as well as iu preserving most food products, the superintendent 
must give close attention to economy of tlie process as well as to the excellence of the 
product, and the costliness of the best process sometimes prevents its u.se. To secure 
the very best result, the stock to be frozen should be perfectly fresh' and free from 
bruises and blood marks. It improves the appearance, and therefore increases the 
value, if the fi.sh are graded according to size, but that is rarely done. All kinds of 
fish keep and look best when frozen just as tliey come froai the water, with heads on 
and entrails in, and it is better that the fi.sh be not eviscerated before freezing, except 
in case of very large fish, such as sturgeon. But since the freezers receive the surplus 
from the fresh-fish trade, many have been already split and dressed. Generally fish 
that are frozen witli heads oft' and viscera removed are not strictly fresh; but this rule 
has mauy exceptions. 

Whether round or eviscerated, the fish are first washed by dumping them into a 
wash box or trough containing fresh cold water, which is frequently renewed, and 
stirring them about witli an oar-shaped paddle or cloth swab to remove the slime, 
blood, etc. Some freezers consider it inadvisable to wash flatfish, because of their 
being too thin. From the wash box the fish are removed by hand and placed in the 
pans, or, better, they are removed with a dip net and deposited in trays situated on a 
jjau-filling bench. The bench iu use in most of the freezing-houses of this country 
is 12 or 15 feet in lengtli and about '2 feet wide, and at intervals of about 3 feet or so 
there are square trays 3 or 4 inches deep, with lattice bottoms for drainage, in which 
the fish are deposited from the wash tank. On either side of each fish-tray is room 
for a fish-pan, at which stands an operative engaged in filling pans. 

The pans are of various dimensions adapted to the size of the fish usually received. 
In most houses they are about 20 or 28 inches long by 16 or 18 inches wide aud 
2 or 3 inches deep, with capacity for about 40 pounds of fish, the material used 
being generally No. 24 Juniata galvanized iron, with the corners turned down, riveted 
and soldered. In some houses much s-naller pans are used, the smallest observed 
by the writer being 10 iuches long by S inches wide. Geuerally at each corner in 
the bottom of the i)aiis there is a small round hole for drainage ])urposes, but some 
])aus are made water tight. Each kind has its advantages. In the tight pan the 
water remaining on the fish from the washing-tank accumulates in the bottom and 



378 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

adds so much to the material to be frozen, bat it also serves to hold the fish together 
in tlie frozen block. In some freezing-houses using tight-bottom pans the weight of 
the ice in the bottom of the frozen block amounts to more than 5 per cent of the total 
weight. This, of course, increases the weight of the frozen flsh when they are sold. 
An erroneous idea i)revails, to some extent, that in using ice and salt for freezing, it is 
necessary to use tight-bottomed pans to exclude the brine. 

The flsh are generally placed so as to make a neat and compact package entirely 
filling the pan, so that the cover will come in contact with the upjier surface of the 
fish. It is desirable to have the backs of the fish at the sides of the pan and the 
heads at the ends, so as to protect the blocks in handling. It is also desirable, when 
the size of the fish so admits and a cover is used, that the bellies be placed upward, 
since that portion has greater tendency to decompose, and, as the cold passes down, 
this areangenu^nt results in freezing the upper portion of the block first, and also in 
less compression of the soft portion of the flsh by removing the weight therefrom. 
This practice, however, is not by any means uniform. In case the flsh have been 
split and eviscerated it is advisable to i)lace them slanting on the sides, but with 
backs up, so as to permit the moisture to run from the stomach cavity, but that is 
not the general practice. Large fish are necessarily })]aced on their sides, the fish 
being curved, if necessary, so as to lie in the pan best. Some freezers place herring 
and other small flsh on their sides two layers deep in the pans, while others place a 
bottom layer of three transverse rows, the end rows with the heads to the edge of the 
pan, and a top layer of two transverse rows laid in the two dei)ressions formed 
between the bottom rows. In case of pike and some other dry flsh a small quantity 
of water is sprinkled over them, since they do not ordinarily retain sutficient moisture 
to hold together when frozen, as is the case with most other species. 

Formerly all pans were provided with covers, as described in Davis's letters patent, 
and this is necessarily so at present, where ice and salt are used for freezing, the cover 
being required to separate the freezing materials from the flsh. These covers are 
slightly larger than the pans, so as to slip on easily. The cover best adapted to a pan 
20 inches by 14 inches by 2 inches is 20i inches by 14i inches by Ij inches, with the 
sides slanting toward the base. But in some houses, where circulating brine or ammo- 
nia is the freezing medium, the covers are being discarded, resulting in a more rapid 
freezing of tlie flsh, as the cold does not have to pass through the metallic cover. But 
in that case the top of the block of flsh does uot present so smooth an appearance 
as when the trover is used, for the latter presses the fish down somewhat and unites 
them more closely, making a firmer package. In order to make a compact block those 
houses not using covers usually place the small fish bellies down. Only a few freezing 
houses have discarded the use of the pan covers altogether, and in the more advanced 
freezers covers are used when the fish can be placed so as to come in contact with 
the cover, otherwise they are discarded. In many sharp freezers, including tlie one 
shown in the illustration opposite page 374, the greater portion of the pans have 
covers, while the others have none. 

As soon as the pans are filled and the covers fitted on they are placed in the sharp 
freezer. In houses where circulating ammonia or brine is used the sharp freezer con- 
sists of a series of coils of small circulating pipes, through which the freezing medium 
])asses, on which the i)aus of flsh are placed, the wliole being inclosed in a room of 
suitable size provided with insulated walls and with doors Where ice and salt are 



PKESERYATION OF FISHKRV PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 379 

used, as iu most of tin* (Veeziiig-houses, tlic sliarp ireezer is usually a stall or bin, opeu 
ill front and sometimes on the sides, the front and sides being' built up with loose 
l)oards as the bin is filled. 

The arrangement of the ice, salt, and flsh-pans in the bin is as follows: The ice, 
after being passed through a grinder, where it is ciuslieil into small particles, is 
mixed with salt in the proportion of from 8 to IG pounds of salt to 10(t pounds of ice. 
The mixing is conveniently done by scattering salt over each shovelful of ice as the 
ice is shoveled from the grinder to the handbarrow. Many varieties of salt are used, 
most houses preferring a coarse mined salt because of its cheapness. Others use 
liner salt because of its coming in clo^^e contact with tlie ice and resulting in a lower 
degree of cold and the more rapid freezing of the flsb, although the salt does not last 
so long. 

The amount of ice and salt required iu freezing a given quantity of fish depends 
principally on the fineness of the materials and tlie proportion in which they are used, 
and to a less extent on the insulation of the freezing bin, the amount of moisture in the 
atmosphere, and the size of the pans and the manner iu which the fish are placed 
therein. The finer the ice and salt the cpiicker the freezing and the exhaustion of 
their strength. A larger proportion of salt also results in quicker freezing. The most 
economical quantities appear to be about 85 pounds of salt and 1,000 pounds of ice to 
each 1,000 pounds of fish, altliough some freezers use much more salt and less ice. 
Much larger quantities of ice and salt are required during warm weather, and also 
more is necessary when the atmosphere is moist than when it is dry. Some of the ice 
and salt generally remains unmelted and this may be used over again in connection with 
fresh materials, additional salt being mixed witli it, and as it is weaker than new ice it 
should be used mainly at or near the bottom of the pile, the top of tlie pile taking care 
of the bottom since the cold descends. 

In making the freezing pile an even layer of ice and salt, about 3 or 4 inches deep, 
is placed at the bottom, on which is laid a tier or layer of pans filled with fish, about 
3 inches of ice space intervening between the pans and the sides of the bin. This is 
followed successively by a layer of ice and salt about 2 or 3 inches deep and a layer of 
pans, the surface of each layer of ice being made even and smooth by means of a 
straight edge. Sideboards ai-e placed as the height of the pile requires, and a wide 
board laid on the i)ile furnishes a walk for the workmen in placing the fi'eezing mixture 
and the pans. Some freezers place the pans in double tiers between the layers of 
ice and salt, and in this case the thickness of the layers of freezing material must be 
increased. In some freezers alight sprinkling of salt is thrown on top of the pans 
before the freezing mixture is applied. The pile is built up as high as it is con- 
venient for handling the pans of fish and the ice and salt, which usually does not 
exceed G feet. A double quantity of the freezing material is ])ut on top, and the whole 
should be covered with wood or canvass to exclude the air. The freezing is usually 
completed in about 15 or 18 liQurs, but the fish usually remain one day, when they are 
ready to be placed in cold storage. On one occasion, at a freezing house in Cleveland, 
2,200 pans of herring, each pan containing about 19 pounds of fish, or a total of 41,800 
pounds, were filled and placed in the freezing-bin in 14 hours. Twenty-seven men were 
required, at a cost of 15 ceiits per hour each, makiug the total cost of labor $56.70, or 
nearly 14 cents per 100 pounds. 

In the sharp freezer the fish, being moivSt, are frozen solidly to each other and to 
the surfaces of the pans. To remove them from the pan the latter is usually passed 



380 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

for a moment tlirougli cold water, which draws the frost sufficiently from the iron to 
allow the flsli to be removed in a block without breaking apart. In one or two freezing- 
houses the tliawing of the fish from the sides of the pan is omitted, the cover being 
loosened and the block of lish removed by hitting the pan at the ends and sides. In 
several houses each pan of fish is dipped for a moment in cold water, when the top is 
lifted off. This is usually the case in ammonia freezing houses when the fish are 
removed from the pans in a cold room where running water would be objectionable. 

In most of the houses nse is made of a sprinkling trough or tank, 2.i or 3 feet 
wide and 8 or iO feet long, with two parallel iron bearings on inclined scantling 
6 or 8 inches apart on the inside, on which the pans may slide from one end of the 
tank to the other. Kesting on top and near each end of this trough is a sprinkling 
box about 3(5 inches long, IS inches wide, and 3 inches deep, which usually consists of 
a box or a block of wood hollowed out from the under surface and with a sheet of metal 
perforated with many small holes tacked on the bottom. At one end of the box 
or block is a l-inch auger-hole, into which the end of a hose may be entered, sending 
a stream of water into the sprinkling box and through the iierforated metal bottom, 
falling into the trough and overflowing at the lower end. 

Some houses substitute a 2-iuch pipe with perforated under surface in iilace of 
the metal bottom to the box. 

The pans of frozen fish are successively placed in the trough under the first 
sprinkling box, where the water falling through thaws the top sufficiently so that a 
workman standing at the middle of the trough may remove the cover, and, turning the 
pan over, he permits it to slide under the second sprinkling box, where the descending 
stream of water thaws the bottom sufQciently for a workman at the end of the trough 
to lift it from the block of fish, which remains intact and is removed from the 
trough and placed on a truck or other conveyance for transfer to the storage room. 
Three men are required at tiie trough, one to place the pans under the first sprinkling 
box, the second to remove the top and turu the pan over and to pass it under the 
second sprinkling box, and the third to remove the bottom of the pan from the fish 
and place the block of fish on the <'arryiiig truck. In order to avoid thawing the 
surface of the fish, the water used must be cold and the pans are placed in the trough 
rapidly, taking but a few moments for the removal of the blocks of fish at the other 
end. In removing the fisL from the pans 8 men are usually required — 2 to remove tlie 
pans from the sharp freezer and carry them to the sprinkler, 3 at the sprinkler, 1 
passing the truck to storage room, 1 handling the blocks of fish in the storage room, 
and 1 placing them in piles. To sprinkle, unpan, and store 40,000 pounds of frozen 
fish requires such a force about 3i hours, and the cost of labor approximates $-1.20. 

In passing through the trough considerable moisture adheres to the fish, which is 
frozen by the surplus cold, forming' a coating of ice about 57, inch thick, entirely sur- 
rounding the irregular block of fish. The process of freezing dries the fish to some 
extent, the loss in weight amounting to about 2 per cent, but tlie ice coating placed 
on them adds about 4 per cent to the weight. Some freezing houses, in order to make 
the coating of ice thicker, pass the block of fish, on its removal from the sprinkling 
trough, through a second trough nearly filled with ice cold water, which has suspended 
in it a hmg box with perforated bottom filled with crushed ice. The blocks of fish 
pass through a channel in the trough uiiderneafh the ice-box, coming out at the other 
end with a coating of ice if^ inch or more in thickness. In houses where sprinkling 



PRESEKVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 381 

boxes are not used the fish are dipped by luiud in a tank of water after removal from 
the pans. In some houses the frozen blocks of fish after removal from the ijans are 
(lipped, then cross-piled in the cold-storage rooms, and on the following day, or even 
the second day after, are again dipi)ed in cold water in order to form a thicker coating. 

After the blocks of flsh are coated with ice they arc passed to the cold-storage 
room, where they are ranged in neat piles, the blocks being placed vertically in some 
houses, but more frequently they are ranged horizontally in piles extending from the 
floor nearly to the ceiling. Strii)s 'J or 3 inches thick are laid on the floor to keep the 
flsh slightly elevated and allow the cold air to circulate underneath. 

Care must be exercised in piling the frozen blocks, lest the piles sag and tumble 
down. When the room is lofty, to avoid heavy pressure on the lowev blocks, a platform 
or floor is arranged about one-half the height of the ceiling, on which the upper blocks 
of flsh rest. A better way of storing the fish is to pack them in boxes, 3 or 4 blocks 
to the box, and place these in' the storage room. While placing the flsh in storage, 
care must be taken to avoid raising the temperature of the room by the admission 
of warm air. This is usually accom])lished by keeping the door closed as much as 
possible and in. some cases by arranging a woolen flap over the entrance to prevent 
the admission of a current of air, or by having in the door to the storage room an 
opening just large enough to permit the passage of the paci;ages of fish. 

The quantity of ice and salt required in the establishments which use those mate- 
rials in the storage rooms is dependent on the outside temperature and the excel- 
lence of the wall insulation and is independent of the amount of frozen fish in the 
room, requiring no more freezing material to keep 5(t tons of frozen flsh at an even 
temperatuie than to keep 2 tons in a room of equal size. With 16-inch or 18-inch 
walls well insulated, it requires the melting of about 40 pounds of ice per day for each 
100 square feet of wall surface when the outside temperature is GO^ F. to maintain a 
temperature of 18° F. inside, this calculation leaving the opening of doors and the 
cooling of fresh material out of consideration. All calculations as to the quantity of 
ice used in ice-and-salt freezing are based on the use ot natural ice, for artificial ice 
is rarely used in those freezers. Since artificial ice is usually colder than natural ice, 
less would be required. The temperature in the storage room should be constant, and 
about l(i° or 18° F. is considered the most economical. Above 20° the fish are likely to 
turn yellow about the livers, a result generally attributed to the bursting of the "gall." 

The storage room ^hould be free from moisture, since the latter otters a favorable 
place for the settlement and development of micro organisms of all kinds, which tend 
to mold the fish. To reduce excessive moisture, a pan of unslaked lime, chloride of 
calcium, or other hygroscopic agency, may be placed in the room, the materinl being 
renewed as exhausted. If the storage rooms are very moist, they should be dried out 
before storing fish in them, this being readily accomidished by using a small gas, 
coke, or charcoal stove. The storage rooins using ammoiua may be diied by passing 
hot water through the pipes, which of course sheuld, under no circumstances, be done 
when there are fish in the rooms. In case of mold- appearing on the fish it might be 
well to try spraying them with a solution of formalin, which is a 40 per cent solution 
of formaldehyde gas in water. The solution, containing 10 parts of formalin and 90 
parts of water, should be sprayed over the fish at the first sign of mold. 

All flsh deteriorate to some extent in cold storage, depreciating both in flavor 
and firmness. The amount of this decrease is dependent primarily on the condition 



382 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

of the fish before freezing and the care exercised in the process of freezing, and, sec- 
ondarily, on the length of time they remain in cold storage. The loss in quality during 
storage is due principally to evaporation, which begins as soon as the fish are placed 
in storage and increases as the ice coating is sapped from the surface. 

Evaporation proceeds at very low temperatures, though not so rapidly as at 
higlier ones; even at a temperature of O'^ F. the evaporation during two or three months 
is considerable. The heavier the ice coating the less tlie evaporation, but it is almost 
impracticable to entirely prevent it, and under ordinary conditions it amounts to 
about 5 per cent in weight in six months, but the loss in quality is greater than the 
loss in weight. 

The method generally adopted of restricting evaporation other than coating with 
ice is to wrap the fish in waxed or ))archment paper and place them in shipping 
boxes whose length and width are slightly larger than the blocks and deep enough 
to contain 4 or 5 blociis, or 120 to 150 pounds of flsh, the inside of the box being lined 
with wrapping i>aper. 

A method of largely reducing evaporation was invented and patented in 1880 by 
Mr. W. B. Davis, of Detroit, Mich., but it is scarcely sufhciently practical for general 
use, especially with cheap grades of lisli. It consists in freezing the flsh as above 
described, cxcei>t that they are packed in fine pulverized ice in the pans before being 
frozen, and when taken out of the i>ans the fish are found solidly imbedded and 
incased in the block of pulverized ice. 

Along the Great Lakes the most popular fish for cold storage are whitefish, lake 
trout, lake herring, blue pike, saugers, sturgeon, perch, walleyed pike, grass pike, black 
bass, catfish, and eels. In addition to these species the Great Lakes freezers receive 
considerable bluefish and sipiefeague from the Atlantic. On the Atlantic coast 
bluelish, halibut, s()nctcague, sturgeon, mackerel, fiattish, cod, haddock, Spanish 
mackerel, striped bass, black bass, perch, eels, carp, and pompauo, are frozen. Salmon, 
sturgeon, and halibut are the principal species frozen on the Pacific coast. 

Some varieties of fish are so very delicate that it is not deemed profitable to freeze 
them, especially shad, but even these are frozen in small quantities. Oysters and 
clams should never be frozen, the best temperature for cold storage being 35^ or 40° F. 
When stored in good condition they will keep about six weeks. As an experiment 
they have been kept fi)r ten weeks, but storage fi)r that lengtli of time is not advisable. 
Caviar also should never be frozen, but held at about 40°. Scallops and frog legs, 
however, are frozen hard in tiu buckets and stored at a temperatuie of 16° to 18° F. 
Sturgeon and other fish too large fitr the pans are frequently hung up in the storage 
rooms by large meat hooks, and when frozen are dipped in cold water and stored in 
piles. But when intended for shipment sturgeon are usually cut into pieces of suit- 
able size for packing in the shipping boxes. 

In some of the largest freezing houses on the Atlantic seaboard, which freeze and 
store fish as well as other food proilucts, the fish to be frozen are simply hung up in 
the sharp freezer, the heads being forced on to the sharp ends of wire nails protruding 
from cross lathes arranged in series. After the fish are frozen they are removed and 
piled in storage rooms, where the temperature is about 15^ or 18^ F. (See plate xii.) 

Where the handling of fish is of minor importance comi)ared with other food prod- 
ucts, the flsh are placed on slat- work shelves in either a special freezing room or in a 
storage room where the temperature is kept below 20° (see plate xli, lower half), or 



PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 383 

til ey are retained in bulk in baskets, boxes, or barrels in the same room; but these 
methods are not productive of results even approximating those in the Great Lakes 
fish-freezers and should not be used where quantities of fish are handled. 

The cost of cold storage and the deterioration in quality make it inadvisable to 
carry frozen fish more than nine or ten months, but sometimes the exigencies of the 
trade result in carrying them two and eveu three years. In the latter case they are 
scarcely suitable for the fresh-fish trade unless the very best of care has been exer- 
cised in the freezing and storage, aud it is usually better to salt or smoke them. 

The rate of charges in those houses which make a business of freezing aud storage 
for the general trade is usually from i cent to 1 cent for freezing and storage during 
the first month, and about half of that rate for storage during each subsequent month, 
dependent on the quantity of fish. However, the cost of running a first-class plant 
at its full capacity is probably less than one-third or even one-fourth of the minimum 
above quoted, since it costs no more to run a storage room full of fish than one-fifth or 
even one tenth full. 

The refrigeration of fish on the Pacific coast, according to Mr.W. A.Wilcox, dates 
practically from 1800, since when it has steadily increased, the aggregate shipments 
irom Oregon and Washington in 1895 being 236 refrigerator carloads, or 5,872,533 
pounds of fresh fish. This consisted chiefly of salmon from Columbia River and Puget 
Sound, with 1,161,715 pounds of dressed sturgeon and a small amount of halibut and 
smelt. Mr. Wilcox, on pp. 587-589 of the Fisii Commission Iteport for 1896, describes 
the process of refrigeration and shipment as follows: 

On the reception iif the lisli at the cold-storage plant they are washcil, wiped dry, and then 
placed on racks attached to trucks; these are run into the freezing rooms where, in a round or 
undressed condition, the fish are solidly frozen. From the freezing rooms the fish are taken to the 
pa<-king and storage rooms and packed in cases holding 250 i)ouuds of fish each. In packing, no ice 
is used. In some cases tlie fish are "glazed" with ice. This process consists in dipping the frozen 
fish in tanks of water that are in a room with a temperature of 20- F. On removing the fish from 
the water they are at once ghized or coated witli ice, repeateil dippings adding to the thickness of the 
icy coat. Glazing is an extr.a precaution to keep the fish from the air. in some cases each fish is 
wrapped in hrown rag paper, in oiled paper, and in hrown i)aper, as an ailditional protection from 
tlie air. The fish having heen fro:^eu aud packed, the eases are removed to cold-storage rooms and 
held until needed for shipment. When placed in the refrigerator cars the latter are charj,ed with ice 
that, e.fcept from some unusual delay, lasts the entire trip to the Atlantic coast. 

During the ]ia.st few years the experimental shipment of fresh frozen fish from America to Europe 
has become of considerable importance. The pioneer shippers liad much to learn and their shipments 
were often under many disadvantages. Sonu^times shipments arrived at their destination in prime 
condition and again were only fair or poor. Frozen fish from America was a new article of food and 
time was necessary to acquaint the peojde with them. The markets, as in this country, were often 
lluctuating and shipments were sometimes sold at a loss. On the whole, results were satisfactory 
enough to encourage aud build up this new branch of the fisheries. The shipments of 1895 included 
300 tons of steelhead trout and 200 tons of silver and chiuook salmon. Until i|uite recently the stei'l- 
head was but little thought of, but with the increasing demand for fresh fish it has grown to be the 
most popular of the several 8|)eries shipped long distances. While not having as much oil as some 
other S]iecies, it is a fine fish, and stands transportation much better than other fish of the salmon 
family. One case is on record in which steelheads frozen solid and shipped to England, alter being 
received and the frost removed, were placed on the market, and the fish had siiili a fresh look, as if 
just from the water, that the dealer was arresteil for having on sale fresh fish illegally caught. 

Hamburg is as yet the favorite point shipped to, from which the fish are distributed all over the 
Continent. At New York the cases of frozen lish are traiisferreii from the ri^frigerator cars or cold- 
storage rooms on shore to those on board of the steamer, the Hamburg steamers receiving and putting 
in cold storage any number of cases of fish oBered. The distributions from Hamburg are made 



384 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

by packing cases of frozen fish into small truck cars holding from 1 to 2 tons each. The cars arc 
taken upon local stc^amers that radiate from Hamburg to many far and near ports. During 1895 ship- 
ments from Hamburg brought from 30 to 60 pfennig, (or from 7i to 15 cents) net a i)ound, freight 
excepte<l. 

In connection with the present quite large shipments of tish to Europe, notice of a small shipment 
from New En.;land to Hamburg as far back as 1876 is of interest. During March of that year Mr. 
J. L. Griffin, tlion engaged in the fish business at Eastport, Mo., maile an experimental shipment of 
fresh frozen salmon that had been taken from the waters of New Brunswick. Mr. Griffin states: 

"The salmon having been frozen solid were paclced in a box which was inclosed within a second 
box with ail air chamber of li inches between thu Ipoxcs. These were placed inside of a third pa diing 
case with a spaie of 1 ijii'li between, this space bring filled with sawdust. The fish arrived at HauL- 
burgin good condition, hut could not find any market as fresh fro/.rn tish, smh an article then being 
unknown. The frost having bjeu removed, the lisli were smoked and met a ready sale." 

This small shipment not meeting with success, the attempt to introduce fresh frozen salmon from 
the Atlantic coast to Europe was for the time discontinued. After many years, with new methods 
of freezing, packing, and shipping, it has been successfully and extensively renewed from the Pacific 
coast. 

For the purpose of economiziug in freight charges on ice, the following method is 
used for shiiiping frozen salmon and other fish from the Pacific to Atlantic coast 
IJoints: The frozen fish are first carefully i)acked in boxes and placed in refrigerator 
cars previously reduced to a low temperature, the floor of which is covered with 
several inches of cold sawdust. Between the boxes of tish and the sides, ends, and 
top of the car is a space of several inches, which is also filled with cold sawdust 
tightly packed. When filled, the car is at once closed, and no ice is placed in the 
tanks, as it is found by extensive experience that fish so packed for shipment reach 
their destination in perfect condition, even after a passage of two weeks or more. 

Messrs. Seufert Bros. Co., of The Dalles, Oregon, state: 

With frozen salmon, the lish are frozen solid as soon as caught, piled in cold storage like cord 
wood in a woodUouse, until time gives a chance for packing, which is done at our leisure. Then they 
are dipped i '. cold water an 1 taken out at once. This forms a very thin coat of ice on them. They 
are then wrapped in oiled paper with an extra heavy pajier wrapped over that. They are then put in 
boxes of 300 pounds net tish, lined with paper, and held in cold storage as long .as one wishes. When 
they are shipped in refrigerator cars we put 6 inches of sawdust on the floor of the cars. The boxes 
are so made that we have about 2 or 3 inches space from the side of cars, which is filled with saw- 
dust, and the top is tilled over with 6 inches of sawdust. This sawdust must be fine and dry. Then 
we put 2 tons of ic(> in the car boxes with 2 sacks of salt, and the car is ready for a freight run across 
the continent of from 11 to 14 days. On reaching New York the fish are put in cold storage. If they 
go foreign, they go directly into the steamer's cold rooms and arc not opened until they reach their 
destination. Frozen salmon will keep perfectly for 10 months; after that they lose ground. 

The process of refrigeration api)lied to sturgeon on the Columbia Eiver when 
shipped to eastern markets is as follows: 

The fish are tirst Ijeheaded, eviscerated, and skinneil. The backbone is then removed and the 
fish cut into suitable sections for freezing. The sections are packed into galvaiiized-iron pans 24 
inches long, 16 inches wide, ai,d 5 inches deep. The pans are then put into a freezer charged with ice 
and salt, and their contents frozen into solid blocks of fish weighing about 60 pounds to each pan. 
The process is precisely similar to that in vogue on the (Jrcat Lakes for freezing fish. When frozen, 
the fish are removed from the pans and packed in boxes, four blocks to each box, and then loaded into 
refrigerator cars. The cars are charged with ice and salt to keep the temperature below the freezing 
point. In winter the cars do not usually require to be recharged before they reach their destination, 
but when the weather is warmer it is sometimes necessary to recharge with ice and salt once or more 
while in transit. (Report U. S. Fish Commission, 1888, pp. 22(), 227.) 

A process quite similar is applied to freezing sturgeon on the Delaware Eiver, 
the frozen fish being then stored for the fall and winter markets. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 386 

FREEZING FISH IN EUROPE. 

An account of the condition of the frozen-tish trade in Europe has recently been 
received from Mr. Nicolas Borodine, of tlie department of agriculture of the Eussian 
Government, of which the followinf>" is a partial translation: 

In the rogions of western Europe, not incliidiug Norway and Switzerland, the winters are so 
mild that fish naturally frozen are not found on the market; hence a strong prejudice has arisen 
among the (Jerujans and French against tish in that condition. They express the oi>iuion that frozen 
fish lose their savory qualities, and they esteem them far less than the unfrozen. In consequence of 
this prejudice frozen fish have not hitherto found much sale in the European markets, although efforts 
have been made in that direction. 

At the end of th(! eighties au attempt to procure fish in the frozen state throughout the entire 
year was made at Marseilles. A company was organized there, under the name of the "Trident," 
which had a sailing vessel furnished with apparatus for freezing fish caught on the west coast of 
Africa. The selection of Marseilles as a market was unfortunate; in the first x'lace, beiauae the men 
of the south, never having seen frozen fisli and not eating them, utterly refused to buy them; and, in 
the second place, the inhabitants were entirely unaccustomed to the kinds of fish which were imported. 
Hence the company was soon compelled to wind up its business. The spread of rejiorts of the worth- 
lessness of frozen fish as food, of which the French were at that time convinced, contributed no little 
to this failure. In their opinion tainted fish imported in warm weather were better than frozen fish. 
Hostility was even aroused at first against fish brought in ice from Algiers to JIarseilles. These, they 
said, are not fresh fish, but preserved fish, and therefore it must not bo sold in the market as fresh fish. 

Another attempt of a simil.ar kind was made by the Norwegians in the Hamburg market in the 
nineties. The North Cape .loint Stock Com|iany built a special steamer, the North Cape, with cold- 
stoiage rooms (low temperature being obtained by means of machinery), which were filled with "Cadus 
OflK^niis" (haddock). The steamer arrived at Hamburg with a full cargo. In the first year hardly 
any customers wore found for the frozen fish, an-i a part of the cargo was carried back. According 
to the reports for 1802-93 (see note by Mr. Heiuemann in Pisciculture of the World, 1893, No. 12, 
p. 39.5), this company built a large cold-storage warehouse at Vardo, in Norway, at a cost of 200,000 
German nuirks [$47,ti00]. The fish are caught on the sjiot, are frozen, and placed in the cold-storage 
warehouse in a temperature of 5^ Reaumur [I8i ' F.]. The shipment on the steamer at that tempera- 
ture is usually made in tlie autumn. A cold-storage warehouse for frozen fish, with a capacity of 
21,000 poods,* was also built in Hamburg. A railroad goes to the warehouse, and the frozen fish are 
shipped to any point in (ieruuiny by rail. 

Fish are sent in a fresh state by rapid transit to Munich, Leipzig, anil Vienna. To give an 
idea of the demand, it is stated in the note already quoted that of 9,000 poo<l8 shi|)ped to Hamburg 
on the steamer North Cape, November 14 (26), 1892, 5,200 poods were sold in the first week and the 
remaindiT of the cargo in the following week. 

Judging by statements made in the German weekly, Deutsche Fischerei-Zeitiing, the prejudice 
against frozen fish is rapidly diminishing, owing in great measure to the fact that frozen fi.sh are 
sold much cheaper than fresh fish shipped in ice; and it may be .asserted that the same thing will . 
occur in this case as in the case of the frozen meat from South America and Australia, which is now 
sold in large quantities iu the gri'at C(uumercial centers. 

In Paris the cobl-storage warehouse is under the Bourse, and is under the management of the 
Compres.sed Air Company of Paris. The central station and the otlico of that company are 56 Rue 
Etieune Marcel, from which point the compressed air is carried iu pipes to many places in the city 
as a motive power. The employment of compressed air ior freezing purposes is Ijasod upon its rapid 
expansion, by which the surrounding atmosphere is rendered extremely cold. For the rarefaction of 
the com|iresse<l air conveyed into the basement of the Bourse a special engine is employed, by which 
the refrigerated air is carried into the compartments formed liy the double wall of the refrigerating 
rooms. The walls are lined on the inside with tin, painted a wliitish color, and on the outside with 
materials which are noncoiuluctors of heat (layers of moss on wood). Every room is furnished with 
a ventilator to carry off the damp air. There are 16 rooms, and each of them can be refrigerated 
separately, and to any temperature near zero "or below zero. They are arranged on both sides of the 

'One pood equals 36.112 pounds. 
F. C. B., 1898—25 



386 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

main corridor. They are rented at 2 francs per square meter of surface if tlie goods are to be 
subjected to a temperature above zero, and 3 francs per 9(|uare meter of surface if a temperature 
below zero is "n'auted. 

In London there are cold-storage warehouses at the Central Market, which lielong to a company 
called "The Central Markets Cold AirStores, Limited." The iuunense cellars of the enormous London 
meat market are used for these warehouses and liave a capacity of 1,000 tons. The warehouses are 
used partly by the company itself, which does business in Australian frozen meat; and are partly 
rented to butchers at .£2 per ton for four days. Besides meat a large quantity of game is stored here, 
including 100 tons of poultry from Russia annually. The whole underground market consists of a 
series of large rooms with thick insulated walls. A square wooden pipe, the sides of which are also 
insulated, passes along the ceiling of all the rooms in the basement; and there are orifices in tliis 
main pipe in every room through which cold air can be admitted. Here, too, the refrigerating 
jjrocess is based upon the expansion of compressed air. At first the air is compressed by steam power. 
It is then driven violently into a vacuum, where, as it expands, it lowers the temperature. From this 
room the refrigerated air is conveyed into conducting pipes for general distribution. These engines 
are built on the Bell &. Coleman system and are constructed in England by the firm of Holsam & Co., 
Engineers, Derby. The temperature can he regulated at will. For meat it ranges from 14'^ to 9° F., 
but never higher than 14-. 

The exportation of frozen meat froiu .Australia has lately attained great dimensions. Forty 
steamers, equipped with apparatus for the transportation of frozen fish, run to London. 

Freezing by machinery, for the storage of fish, was first employed in Russia at Astrakhan, by Mr. 
Supuk, who first built an ice barge for freezing by means of air engines of the Lightfoot system. 
This occurred in 1888. In this new enterprise Mr. Supuk was subjected to great losses through his 
failure to induce others to send their fish to his l)arge. Not obtaining any cooperation ou the part of 
the fish-dealers of Astrakhan, and becoming convinced that he would have to procure fish for himself, 
Mr. Supuk, in 1891, requested the aid of the Russian Fishery Association, which, however, could not 
furnish him any material assistance, hut which, through its members and by articles in the press, 
greatly contributed to tlie establishment of this new business. Recently Mr. Suj)uk's business has 
been considerably enlarged and is ou a firm footing. 

I borrow from Mr. A. K. Heinemaun, who inspected Mr. Supuk's ice barge at the time of its 
construction, some of the chief details concerning it. Its capacity is estimated at 10,000 poods. 
It is intended to freeze and to transport in the frozen state not only large but small fish. It is fit for 
going to sea and for ascending the Volga as far as Nijni-Xovgorod. The cold-storage rOom occupies 
nearly the whole length of the barge, and is formed by double walls with the space between them 
filled with sawdust. The walls are at a little distance from the sides of the barge, and the ceiling of 
the room does not reach the deck, so as to avoid heating. The engines stand, one in the bow, the 
other in the stern of the barge. The chamber contains five sections, two of which serve for freezing 
fish and the middle ones for storing fish. In the former the temperature is about 12 R., in the latter 
it is kept at 2'-"' to 3- R. The capacity of the two freezing chambers is 450 to 500 poods [Xti,200 to 
18,000 pounds]. The largest fish is I'rozen through and through in 24 to 3(i hours. The cold air, iu 
its passage from the engines to the freezing chambers, is conveyed through a separate snow chambei-, 
in which the superfluous moisture of the air is condensed in the form of snow ; from there the cold 
air is conveyed through wooden pipes to the freezing chambers and the cold-storage rooms. The 
admission of the air is regulated by espagnolettes. 

Having procured the capital needed for the whole operation of the ]iurchase and sale of fish on 
his own account, Mr. Supuk built at Astrakhan, ou the bank of the Volga, a stone edifice for freezing 
fish and for storiug the frozen fish, and the barge is used exclusively lor the transportation of the 
frozen fish from Astrakhan to Tsaritsin. On the whole, the undertaking proved very profitable, and 
Mr. Supuk is extending his business, making improvements, and proceeiling to the construction of 
a second barge, intended for the southern part of the Caspian Sea. The uew barge has a capacity 
of 25,000 poods [450 tons] of fish. The freezing machine is ))laced in the middle of the barge. It is 
furnished with electric light. 

Freezing by machinery is carried on on a still larger scale by the great fish firm of Vorobieif, at 
Petrovsk, which has built large cold-storage warehouses, at a cost of 185,000 rubles [.$71,865]. 

A mixture, composed of ice aud salt, is employed for freezing fish at Mariupol and Henichesk. 

Judging by the printed rejiorts, fish are frozen at Mariupol in tubs made for the purpose [4 by 2A 
by 2 arshinesj with a capacity of 100 poods [3,611 pounds], in which the fish are kept for days in a 



PRESEP.VATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 387 

mixture of ice and salt [10 per cent of the latter]. Wheu frozen, they are taken out and shipped in 
Ijaskets by rapid transit to Kharkoff, JIoscow, and otlier great centers. 

At Geuichesk the freezing of dolphins and sturgeon is carried on in an ordinary cellar constructed 
on the seashore. lu the spring and autumn the cellar is nscd for salting the iish, and in the summer 
when the dolphin fishery is mostly carried on in the sea, the chests from which the fish are taken are 
used to freeze the fish. This is done in the following manner : A layer of ice, 1 arshine * in depth, is laid 
on the bottom of the chest; this is covered with salt; on this is placed a layer of fish which is covered 
with a fresh layer of ice and salt of half an arshine, and so on to the top. The fish remain in this 
condition for 3 weeks, not longer, and are frozen, as in winter, in 24 hours after they are placed in the 
chest. If it i3 necessary to keep the fish longer than 3 weeks they are taken out of the ice and placed 
in boxes containing gratings in order that the cold may penetrate them aud to jirevent the fish from 
becoming soft by not being sulSciently salted. If it is intended to take the fish out within a week, 
the first layer of ice is made only one-half ar^shine deep and the others much less. The capacity is 
7,000 poods of frozen fish. The whole shipment from Genichesk amounts to 20,000 poods every 
summer. The frozen fish is shipped mostly to Kharkofi' where it arrives iu 24 hours, and may go as 
far as Moscow. It is sent with great ra])idity, in baskets containing 10 jioods, with a mat over the top. 

At the place of the catch the dolphins are sent direct iu fresh condition to the freezing establish- 
ment, where they are frozen. On islands at a distance from Genichesk, ice is stored on the spot and 
the fish are frozen there by being buried iu tlie ice, and are then shipped at night on sailing vessels 
when the wind is favorable. 

The same method has been employed recently at Uralsk for freezing sturgeon, and the frozen 
sturgeon of the spring catch are shipped to Busuluk and Orenburg. In order to show the fish-dealers 
the construction of the cold-storage rooms of the American typo, for the preservation of frozen fish, a 
room of that kind was constructed at Uralsk after my plans. The whole operation of freezing the 
fish and the construction of the room itself have been several times explained in this miniature ware- 
house; aud an opportunity of inspecting it is ofi'ered at any time to those wishing to do so. 

There is no doubt that freezing fish iu the ordinary ice-house appears to be the simplest 
method, as it reijuires no special buildings and is done in the common cellar ice-house, part of the ice 
in which serves for that purpose. The large fish, as I succeeded in ascertaining by personal observa- 
tion, are frozen very thoroughly by this means and lose nothing of their external appearance. The 
time during which the fish can be preserved by this method, however, is limited. The fish must be 
taken out within a week or a week and a half; otherwise the brine acts upon the frozen fish, and it 
becomes soft and dark. Besides, this method can only be applied where there is a large stock of ice 
on hand, as is the case in vaults which are also used for other purposes. 

In view of what has been said, we must conclude that for Russia, in i>la<es where there are 
fisheries, the most expedient mode of cold storage consists in a combination of the vault and the cold- 
storage rooms of the American type for the preservation of frozen fish. By means of such combination, 
in the first place, the space may be used for the ordinary purposes of the spring and autumn salting; 
in the second place, the largest fish caii be easily frozen by direct burial in the ice without any great 
expense for labor; and iu the third place, when the frozen fish are taken out of the ice, they can be 
stored for the longest period iu the cold-storage rooms of the American type. 

FREEZING HERRING FOE BAIT. 

The ileiiiaucl for fiesb lierriiifr as bait in the cod fisheries led, in 1890, to the build- 
ing of a number of freezing bouses along the New lMii;laiid coast, \vhere shore herring 
are frozen during the fall and kept for use during tiie winter and early spring. Jlost 
of these wers of the direct anhydrous amniouia absorption system and were designed 
by M. J. Paulson, of Gloucester. From 1800 to 1803 the foUowing plants, with the 
designated capacities, were constructed : Gloucester, 4,500 barrels; Kockland, 10,000 
barrels; Boothbay Harbor, 4,000 barrels; Provincetown, 3,000 barrels; North Truro, 
3,000 barrels. The Kockland freezer did not pay aud was dismantled in 1894. The 
walls of the storage chambers in these plants are thick and well insulated. About 
the walls on the inside are ranged the ammonia pipes in nests of horizontal rows, the 

* One arshine equals 28 inches. 



388 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

distance between the rows being 4 or 5 inches and between each pipe in th§ rows 3 or 
4 inches. The herring are thrown on hand boards of lattice or small flake platforms, 
which are placed on the various rows of pipes, and are frozen, the temperature during 
the process being sometimes 15° F. or lower. They are afterwards stored in heaps on 
the floor between the nests of pipes and additional fish are placed ou the lattice boards. 
The plant at ^orth Truro, Mass., is thus described by the engineer, Mr. E. R. 
Ingraham : 

Our building is of wood, 100 feet long, 40 feet wide, and 3i stories high. Our sharp freezer is 
on the third story; it is 70 feet long, 30 feet wide, 8 feet high, and contains 10,896 feet of li-inch pipe 
arranged in four toils running the length of the building. The pipes are 12 inches from center to center. 
Ujion these coils are placed wooden flakes, or shelves, 6 feet long and t feet wide. Upon these flakes 
the fish are placed to be frozen. The capacity of the machine is 125 barrels in 24 hours. 

As soon as the fish are frozen they are put down through scuttles into the storage rooms, which 
are four in number and contain 8,400 cubic feet each. Here the fish are held at a temperature of 15'- 
above zero. In our sharp freezer we carry a temperature of from 15"^ to 15- below. AVe have two 
machines of the absorption type — direct expansion. The temperature of our condensing water is 52'-\ 
We carry 140 pounds high pressure on the generator, 3 to 10 pounds on absorber, 40 pounds of steam 
on generator, and liO pounds of steam on boilers. We burn on an average one ton of coal every 24 
hours. The fisli are all caught in weirs about one mile from the storage. They are brought in boats 
to the shore, where they are dressed and washed clean ; then they are hoisted to the top of the third 
story, whence they go down through scuttles into the freezing room, where they are frozen solid. 

There are also two iceand-salt refrigerator plants on the New England coast, one 
at Gloucester, Mass., with capacity for 3,000 barrels of herring, and the other at 
Boothbay Harbor, Me., for about 500 barrels. Some food-fish also have been frozen 
in these refrigerators, but they are used principally for preserving herring for bait. 

In the fall of 1S98 the schooner J. K. Manniny, 282 ton.s, and the barge TiIliiJ,425 
tons, were fitted up at Gloucester with direct ammonia absorption freezers and sent to 
Newfoundland for the purpose of freezing herring and squid for bait. The capacity 
of the former is 3,000 barrels and of the latter about 2,000 barrels. 

A very cheap and ingenious device, linowTi as the Wallems freezer, is used for 
freezing small quantities of herring for bait in Norway and in Newfoundland. The 
cost is small, the only materials required being ice, salt, and a stout barrel. Within 
the barrel four wooden flanges are fastened to the sides and running diagonally or at 
an angle with the axis. The barrel is one-half tilled with a mixture of crushed ice and 
salt, in a proportion of about three parts of ice to one of salt, Iti case of ice not being 
obtainable, snow will suffice. The barrel is loosely filled with fresh herring and headed. 
It is then placed on its side and rolled on its bilge one or two turns forward and then 
backward one or two turns, the rolling being continued for about 15 minutes, at the end 
of which time the herring are generally thoroughly frozen, when they are placed in dry 
sawdust until used. The flanges inside the barrel are placed at an angle with the axis 
so as to aid in mingling the fish with the ice and salt when the barrel is rotated. 

The rate at which the barrel should be rotated is easily determined by experience, 
and the salt and ice may be used over again as long as they last, hut it is usually 
desirable to add some additional salt and ice. For convenience in handling, the barrel 
may be suspended from an axle and i-otated by means of a crank, the fish, ice, and salt 
being admitted and removed through a hinged-lid opening in the side of the barrel. 



PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 389 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS BY DRYING AND DRY-SALTING. 



Next to heat, moisture is the greatest aid in the development of bacteria, and its 
removal constitutes one of the most important processes of preservation, being applied 
to a variety of foods, as fruits, cereals, and occasionally to the curing of meats, but its 
most important application is to the curing of fish. The moisture may be removed in 
several ways — by exposure to the air, by iiressure, by combining with the fish certain 
substances possessing a strong affinity for water, such as salt, by use of absorption 
pads, etc. 

Drying in the open air is the most ancient method of preserving fish, it being the 
principal method in vogue among the PhcDuicians, and up to the present time it has 
been emijloyed to a greater or less extent in nearly every fish-producing country, 
either in its oinginal form or with certain modifications tending to assist in removing 
the moisture. The use of salt performs a twofold function in curing fish, it acting as 
an antiseptic as well as diminishing the amount of moisture. Fish can be cured 
e(iuall y hard by resaltiiig with dry salt several times at suitable interv'als as by drying in 
the open air. But the former is imprai'ticable on the score of economy and the latter 
is not generally eaiployed exclusively, because of the unsuitable climatic conditions, 
;iiid in America it is most practicable to combine tlie two methods with the addition 
of compression, the fish being first salted in butts and afterwards pressed and dried. 

The original process of curing fish solely by drying in the sun is very little used 
in this country, as there are few localities where the air is adapted to it. The Indians 
of the Northwest dry a number of sijecies, among which are halibut, salmon, cod, 
eulachon, smelt, etc., and at a few other localities some minor species are dried, but 
the business is inconsiderable and there is no general trafBc in these products. 

In Norway, Sweden, and liussia, and other countries of northern Europe, where the 
air is comparatively free from moisture, cod are yet dried without the use of salt, but 
Norway is the only country that prepares large quantities in this manner. The fish 
are beheaded, eviscerated, and cleaned with sea water and suspended in the air on 
stands about 8 feet high, where they remain for weeks, and even months, until they 
are hard enough to withstand the strongest pressure of the tip of the thumb in the 
thick of the flesh along the back without giving way, and it is necessary to soak them 
in water for several hours before i)reparing them for the table. This is known as the 
stockfish cure, and the annual product in Norway exceeds 400,000 quintals, which is 
marketed in Germany, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Brazil, and other countries, especially 
those located in the Tropics. 

In the TXjiited States, the British North American Provinces, France, Iceland, and 
certain other countries the greater portion of the desiccation is performed by salt, the 
fish being first salted and then dried ; but in each country the methods difter in some 
particulars, as in the quantity and (quality of salt used, the extent of the drying, the 
length of pressing, etc., depending not so much on the caprice and fancy of the 
individual curers as upon the market for which the fish are intended, regard being 



390 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

paid to the appearance and keeping qualities of the product; In curing codfish for 
the New Enghmd trade about 04 per cent of the moisture is removed — .59 per cent by 
the salting and 5 per cent by pressing and drying. 100 pounds of split cod contain 
about SO pounds of water; and, in the process of curing, .^l pounds are removed by 
the action of the salt and Jri pounds by pressure and drying. Norwegian stockfish has 
been freed from about DO per cent of moisture by atmospheric drying alone. 

The principal marine i)roducts to which this process is applied are cod, liake, 
haddock, cusk, pollock, mullet, shrimp, channel bass, banacuda, bonito, and salmon, 
but as its ajjplication to the cod and its related species is the most extensive and 
valuable, the methods of treating those S])ecies will be first described. 

DRIED CODFISH. 

In speaking of codfish generally the various species of Gadida common on the 
New England coast are usually referred to, the most important being the cod (Gadus 
callarins), haddock (Mchmogrammits a'i/iifini(s), i)ollock {PoJIacMus virrns), hake {Mvr- 
lueius bilinearin), and cusk {Brosmius brosmc). Tlie pro])ortion of these entering into 
the dried-fish trade is about as follows: Cod, 8i percent; hake, 10 percent; haddock, 
'.J i)ev cent; pollock, 3 per cent, and cusk, 1 per cent. 

The greater portion of the dry-salted codfish in America is obtained from the 
bank fisheries, especially from Grand Banks and vicinity. Many are also received 
from Georges and other neighboring banks, representing the surplus from the fresh-fish 
trade. Gloucester is the principal market for this ai'ticle, while Portland, Province- 
town, Boston, Boothbay Ilarbor, and other ports handle large quantities. 

In large ports, especially Gloucester aiul Boston, most of the product is prepared as 
boneless fish, but in the smaller places the fish are usually dried more thoroughly for 
distant markets. During the eighteenth century and the early part of the jiresent cen- 
tury codfish were prepared largely for export, and consequently were made quite dry, so 
as to keep for several mouths in waiin, moist climates. At present, however, the great 
bulk of the product is intended for domestic consunq)tiou and is not so thoroughly dried. 

It was formerly customary for United States lishermen on the Grand Banks and in 
the Gulf of St. Lawrence to land on the rocky shores of Newfoundland and other Bi'itish 
Provinces to cure their fish. In that case the fish were split, salted, and kenched in 
the vessel while on the banks, and ou landing they were dried upon the rocky beaches. 
After curing the fish many of the vessels carried them directly from the provinces to 
Spanish and other ports, where they were sold and a return cargo of merchantable 
products was brought home. The privilege of lauding to cure fish was considered 
quite valuable and occasioned much international controversy. By the treaty of 1818 
the fishermen of the Ignited States were allowed to land and cure their fish within 
certain prescribed limits, which were increased in extent by the Washington treaty 
of 1871. But during recent years this privilege has been of no value, as the fishermen 
have brought all their catch directly home to be pre])ared by regular fish-curers. 

The present process of curing cod, haddock, hake, cusk, and pollock, which is 
essentially the same as that in vogue a century ago, except in the amount of drying, 
is as follows, this descrii)tion being especially applicable to the fishery on the Grand 
Banks and to the preparation of fish for the domestic trade: 

The dressing is begun as soon as the dories return to the vessel, or as soon as the 
day's work is over when fishing from the vessel's deck or from shore boats. Unless 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 391 

this be done the cured fish are likely to have a dark color and the flesh be broken and 
loose, especially near the backbone. This is also noticeable in fish caught on trawl 
lines wlien stormy weatlier prevents the overhauling of the trawls for two or three 
days. Care should also be taken not to bruise the fish any more than is necessary 
and to protect them from the sun by means of tarpaulin or otherwise, if they arc not to 
be dressed for several hours. It would improve the appearance of the cured product if 
the fish were bled as soon as practicable after removal from the water, but this is not 
a common i)ractice in the 'Sew England fisheries, except in the vessel hand-line fishery, 
when the tongues arc cut out, which is more particularly for the purpose of keeping- 
count of each man's catch. The blood is subject to putrefactive action nuich more 
readily than the flesh, and if it remains in the ])ores it causes the color of the flesh to 
turn dark. The additional trouble of bleeding the fish would be slight, it being done 
by cutting the throat and the large vein near the neck bone. 

A dressing gang on the usual Grand Banks vessel consists of a "throater," a "gut- 
ter," and a " splitter." The first named, taking the fish in his left hand by the head and 
resting it on its back on the edge of the tub. makes a. transverse cut across the throat 
immediately behind the gills, with a strong, sharp pointed knife. Introducing the knife 
at this opening, he cuts down the belly, laying open the abdominal cavity, and making 
also one cut on each side downward he separates the head from the sides. Then by 
pressure simultaneously upon the head and the body, the neck resting on the edge of 
the tub, he breaks ott' the head from the body at the first vertebra. The gutter, taking 
the fish, opens the abdominal cavity with liis left hand and with his right haiul tears 
loose and removes all the organs contained therein. The livers are thrown into a 
separate recei)tacle, while the stomach and other organs are with the heads thrown 
into the sea or into the gurry pen on the deck, whence they are discharged into the 
sea on changing the berth of the vessel. 

The fisii then passes to the splitter, who is provided with a knife rounded at the 
end and with the blade slightly curved flatwise. With the back of each fish braced 
against a cleat or batten nailed on the splitting board, he makes a long incision down 
the ventral surface, continuing the opening made by the throater, and also makes 
a straight, dean cut along the left edge of the backbone to the tail, inserting the knife 
no deeper than is necessary for cutting out the backbone. With a horizontal stroke he 
cuts through the backbone about two-fifths of the distance from the tail and loosens 
it so that he can catch the end in his fingers. Grasping tliis with his left hand he 
cuts under it toward the head of the fish and separates the upper thi-ee-fifths of the 
backbone from the body, the lower two-fifths remaining in the fish. In this operation 
the knife should be i)ressed close to the backbone, so that no flesh adheres thereto, 
otherwise the fish will be thin through the back. In dressing pollock nearly all of the 
backbone is removed because of the large quantity of blood along the bone. The 
French curers leave more of the backbone in the fish than is customary in America 
and elsewhere, and to remove the blood in the remaining portion they use a small iron 
spoon. The cut through the backbone should be horizontal toward the head, passing- 
through two or three vertebra, and it should not be deep enough to damage the muscles 
lying. along the backbone and thus weakening the lower part of the fish. 

After removing the sounds or air bladders the backbones are discarded. Sounds 
sometimes sell at such a low price that it does not warrant saving them and they are 
discarded with the backbones. A slight incision should be made along the remainiiig 
part of the backbone to permit the escape of any blood that may remain. 



392 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

The fish are then washed iu tubs of sea water or by sousing water over them, 
especial care being talieu to clean the neck, the vemaiuing portion of the backbone, 
and the vicinity of the dorsal fins, and to remove the dark membrane that adheres to 
the napes. Even if the fish are dressel on shore, sea water is preferred for washing 
them, as fresh water has a tendency to make them slimy. In washing them in tubs 
the water should be changed frequently to prevent its becoming foul. 

After the splitting and washing, with the subsequent draining, comes the salting, 
which is accomplished in two ways, forming the kench cure and the pii:kle cure. In 
the former the fish are placed with dry salt in regular j^iles or kenches, and the pickle 
which forms is allowed to run off, leaving the fish dry, and in the pickle cure the fish 
are salted in bntts or barrels which retain the brine. The kench cure makes a drier 
product and one suitable for export to hot climates, but is rarely used in the United 
States except in combination with the pickle cure. Generally in this country the fish 
are salted in kenches on board vessel and in butts on shore. 

In the Grand Banks fisheries, the fish, after draining, are passed to the Salter in 
the hold of the vessel. Grasping eacli fish by the tail, he throws it upon the kench 
or pile, flesh side or face up, and with a small scoop sprinkles over it a (luantity of salt. 
The kenches are built up in regular order, the fish being laid head to tail, sjjread out 
flat, with the back oi' skin down. 

Salting requires considerable skill, the fish spoiling from insufiflcient salt and 
deteriorating in flavor from an excess. As a rule, the less amount of salt required 
for preserving the fish the better, but the salt should not be used S[)aringly. Some 
fishermen, in order to nuxke their fish weigh heavy, put on too little salt and at times 
lose the fish as a result. Thin fish require much less salt than thick ones, and less salt 
is necessary in cold weather tlian in warm. Also those fish which are to remain a long 
time before being used require more than those to be marketed quickly. Experience 
is the only guide, but as a rule an even layer of salt thoroughly covering the fish and 
leaving no vacant places or finger marks is sutticient. Coarse salt is ])referred to tine, 
especially for fish that are not to be marketed for a considerable length of time, as it 
does not go to brine so (]uickly. Formerly Cadiz salt, by which name all tlie Spanish 
salts are called in tliis country, was used, but during recent years Trapani salt has 
been employed ahnosr exclusively, the use of the former being abandoned on account 
of its abundanci' of lime, which settles on the fish, and also its greater tendency to 
impart to the fish a reddish color, attributed to some vegetable matter contained in 
tlie salt, which develops rapidly during warm, moist weather. On an average, 1 
bushel of Trapani salt is used to each hundredweight of fish in the Georges fishery, 
while the Grand I'.anks fishery usually requires lA bushels to the hundredweight of 
fish. Vessels engaged in the latter fishery usually carry about 200 hogsheads of salt 
in pens or compartments, each pen holding 1.5 or 20 hogsheads, and as the pens are 
emptied of salt tliey are used for storing the fish. The Georges lianks vessels, being 
absent a much shorter length of time, do not carry so much salt. 

The fish remain in kenches until the vessel arrives in port, care being taken that 
no water reaches them. If the vessel is absent three or four mouths those fish caught 
during the first month or so are generally rekenched and additional salt sprinkled 
among them if it appears necessary. As the pickle accumulates and is driven out 
from the fish in the middle and lower i)arts of the kenches by the pressure of those 
above, the vessel must be punii)ed out frequently. Some fisherman claim that they 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 393 

can determine from the quality of tlie pickle pumped out whether the fish are keeping 
in good condition. If the pickle shows signs of being tainted, the fish must at once 
be overliiiuled and repacked. 

As soon as the cod are landed on the dock they are culled, the principal grades 
being (1) large cod, which includes all over 22 inches in length salted; (2) medium or 
small cod, between IC and 22 inches in length; and (3) snappers, which comprise 
the lowest grade. If the trip is from other grounds than the Grand Banks, the "scale 
fish" are separated from the cod; these comprise hake, haddock, pollock, and cusk. 
Of the cusk, two grades have been made during recent years, namely : (1) large, cover- 
ing all over 19 inches in length salted ; and (2) snappers, comprising all under 19 inches 
in length. Each grade is weighed separately and the fish are washed with clean salt 
water in tubs, vats, or old dories. If the fish have been kenched for two months or 
more they are sometimes rubbed with bristle or palmetto brushes to remove surplus or 
incrusted salt, etc. 

They are next placed in large butts, usually old molasses or sugar hogsheads, 
each having capacity for about 900 to 1,000 pounds of fish. From 2 to 4 bushels of 
Trapani salt is sprinkled among the fish in each butt, this (juautity depending on the 
degree and length of salting on the vessel. In the case of Grand Banks cod about 2J 
bushels of salt are placed in each butt, whereas for Georges cod, which usually are not 
so heavily salted in the vessels, about .3.J bushels are required. With the exception 
of the bottom layer the fish are generally placed with the skin side up, but this is not 
the universal custom, some turers placing all the fish fiesh up except the last two or 
three layers. Fish in butts take the salt better if placed face or flesh side up, and 
in case they have been only lightly salted it is best to place them face up; but if they 
have been thorouglily salted on board the vessel it seems immaterial whether they 
be placed face up or back up in the butts. The bottom layer is placed back down, to 
protect the fish from the bottom of the butt, and the top layers have the backs up as 
protection against dirt, dust, etc. On top of the pile is placed about half a bushel of 
salt, to strengthen the weak pickle which floats up to the surface. In case the fish 
have been but slightly salted on board the vessel, some curers hang over each butt a 
baskefcontainiug about a bushel of salt, through which water is allowed to percolate 
and, thus charged with brine, to flow into the butt, the salt in the basket being renewed 
as it melts away. The fish remain in the butts under shelter until orders are received, 
which may be a year or more, in that case inore salt being added from time to time; 
but the sooner they are used after the first few weeks the better, otherwise they have 
a tendency to turn yellow, or in case of pollock they turn dark. 

When orders are to be filled the fish are removed from the butts and placed 
flesh side down, except the first two layers, in kenches about 3 feet high, for the 
purpose of pressing out some of the water and giving the fish a smooth surface, this 
being known as " water-horsing." The following day they are again replied in a similar 
manner, but with those fish in the upper half of the first pile placed in the lower half 
of the second. The water-horse should be made a little higher in the middle than on 
the sides, in order to facilitate the running of the moisture from the fish, and it 
should be put on racks about 3 inches high, to protect the fish from the moisture, dirt, 
etc., on the floor. In order to avoid water-horsing a second time, many of the curers 
place weights on top of the first water-horse, this being most easily accomplished by 
placing boards on the pile of fish and rolling empty hogsheads on top; but this is not 



394 BITLI,F,TIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

a desirable snbstitntioii for repiling, since the lower layers are thereby com]n'<'s.se<l 
more tliau the upper ones. All handling of fish from the vessel's hold to l)e.i;iiining 
the water-horse is generally done with pews or long-handled forks with one oi- two 
prongs to each handle. 

From the water- horse the fish go to the flakes, which are of two kinds, stationary 
and canting, the former being the more common. They are about 2i feet high, 8 
feet wide, and of convenient length, with passageways wide enough for handbarrows 
between the stands. The horizontal top, resting upon ordinary wooden horses S feet 
long and about 2 feet high, is in three i);irts: (1) The long joists 2 by 3.^ inches and 12 
or 14 feet long; (2) the cross joists about I'j by 2 inches and 8 feet long; (3) the 1-inch 
triangular strips, upon which rest the fish. Three of the long joists run lengthwise 
of each stand, and to these are nailed the cross joists, about 12 inches apart, aTid to the 
cross joists are nailed the triangular strips, 3 or 4 inches apart. At each end and 
transversely at suitable intervals over the flakes are placed frames about 15 inches 
above the flakes, upon which cotton awnings may be stretcheil when the sun is hot. 
The canting frames ditfcr from the above in that they are fixetl only at the middle and 
to a horizontal axis, so that they can be turned at an angle with the horizon, in order 
to expose only the edge of the fish to the sun and to get the benefit of even a slight 
breeze. With these flakes cotton awnings are dispensed with, but very few of them 
are now used in this country, and they are practical only in yards running north and 
south. At Gloucester many of the flakes are on platforms built over shallow water. 
In Portland, Me., the roofs of the fish houses are used as resting places for the flakes, 
and at Eockport, Mass., the flakes are built on tall posts overhanging the sloping 
rocks, thus allowing the air to freely circulate beneath the fish. The old style of 
brush Hake is not used at present on the New England coast, nor are codfish dried on 
the beaches in the ITnited States, as is common in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. 
About thirty years ago a form of flake was introduced having screens or slatted 
frames, like those of window shutters, arranged to protect the fish from the weather 
or to screen them from the rays of the sun, as circumstances may require, but its use 
was never extensive. 

In carrying the fish from the butts to the flakes they are placed on wheelbarrows 
or on handbarrows, the latter being usually made of oak and consisting of two sticks 
about feet long, with '> crossbars, each 21 inches long, 2i inches wide, and li inches 
thick. For carting the fish from wharf to wharf a low platform 4- wheeled truck, called 
a jigger, is in common use. 

The principal troubles in connection with curing fish are flies, sunburning, and 
softening. Flies are avoided by keeping the vicinity of the flakes clean and airy and 
free from all putrefying refuse. During some years the flies are so numerous that it is 
necessary to protect the slack-salted fish by sprinkling lime or salt about the flakes 
and yard to destroy the maggots. Sunburning is prevented by protecting the fish from 
the excessive action of the sun, and softening may result from a stinted use of salt on 
board the vessel, or from wet, cloudy weather during the process of curing. Cod and 
haddo(5k burn quite readily unless properly prote(;ted, but there is little danger with 
hake and cusk, even on hot sunny days. Because of climatic conditions it is frequently 
quite difficult to cure codfish during July and August on the New England coast, the 
air being moist and the sun so hot as to sunburn the fish very quickly; but in October 
and November little trouble is exxjerienced from this source. On the New England 



PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 395 

coast the direction of the wind has considerable influence on the drying. Winds from 
the nortliwest or soutlieast are usually dry and good for curing tisli, but under the 
influence of southwest winds the fish are liable to burn, and when northeast winds 
prevail it is extremely ditticult to dry the flsh. 

Much difference exists in the extent to which the flsh are dried. 8ome are dried 
for only a few hours and others for a week or more, depending on the market for 
which they are intended. Some markets desire flsh from which 50 per cent of moisture 
has been eliminated; others (JO |)er cent, and others 70 per cent, and since a larger 
per cent of moisture removed represents a greater increase in labor and decrease in 
weight of product, a curer endeavors to avoid drying them any more than necessary. 
Those to be used in preparing boneless flsh are dried very slightly, 8 or 10 hours of 
good sunning being sufticieut, while the export flsh must be dried for a week or 10 
days. Every evening the flsh are placed, flesh side down, on the flakes, in small heaps 
of 15 or UO, and a cover of wood, known as the flake box, is idaced over each heap to 
prevent injury from dampness or rain. This cover consists of a rectangular box with 
a peaked roof and is generally about 38 inches long, 22 inches wide, aud 14 inches 
high, the whole being made of three fourths inch rough boai'ds. When the air is moist, 
the fish are not spread out, but if the weather renders it necessary to keep the fish 
l)iled up for several days, they are occasionally rearranged. 

When preparing fish for export, after they have been on the flakes two or three 
days they are placed in kenches under cover to "sweat," where they remain for two 
or three days, when they are again spread on the flakes for a day or two. In some 
instances the flsh are then dry enough for shipping, but usually it is necessary to 
sweat them once more and again dry them for a day or so. The export flsh are 
usually dried sufficiently hard to withstand the pressure of the thumb in the thick 
part of the flesh without retaining the impression. During moist weather these fish 
are likely to sweat and become soft; it is then necessary to "throw them," scattering 
them over the flakes for a day or so. 

Most of the export fish are what are known technically as "kench-cured." This 
difi"ers from the above only in that the salted flsh on removal from the vessel's hold 
are not placed in butts, but in kenches, skin down, in the warehouse, whence they are 
removed as required, washed to I'eniove slime, undissolved salt, etc., and dried on the 
flakes for three or four days in the manner last described. They are next replied and 
sweated for two or three days, when they are dried again for a day or two, replied 
and sweated for two or three days, and again dried for a day or two, when they 
are ready for shipment. These flsh are slack-salted, but well dried, whereas fish for 
the domestic trade are generally heavily salted, but only slightly dried. Hake and 
haddock are rarely kenchcured, but the latter are not often exported from the United 
States, although there is a steadily increasing exportation of them from Nova Scotia 
to southern Brazil and to Cuba. 

In case the flsh are fresh when received at the curing-houses, they are at once 
beheaded, eviscerated, split, and washed in the manner described for vessels Ashing 
on the Grand Banks. They are immediately placed in butts, with the flesh side up and 
with about 7 bushels of salt to 1,000 pounds of fish scattered among them. The flsh 
are piled in each butt until they extend a foot or two above the surfiice. On the 
second or third day, after they have settled somewhat, a half bushel of salt is placed 
on top. No pickle is added, as in case of Grand Banks fish, since the green flsh will 



396 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

make their own ijickle. The fish remain in these butts at least fifteen or twenty Qlays, 
and as much longer as desirable, when tliey are removed, water-horsed, and dried on 
the flakes, as already described. This is the true "pickle-cured" fish, the treatment 
of the Grand Banks fish combining both the "kench cure" and the " pickle cure." 

Pollock which have been salted only a few d;iys on the vessel are sometimes 
placed in the butts and weak pickle is allowed to percolate through a basket of 
salt over them for five to seveu hours. Or, if fresh, they are split, washed and 
keuched, skiu down, with 1 or 2 bushels of salt to the 1,000 pounds of fisli, and on 
the following morning they are placed in butts, back up, each butt being tilled with 
weak brine, which leaks through a basket suspended over it. On removal from the 
butts the fish are water-horsed over night and exposed on the flakes, back or skin 
side up, for three or four days. By exposing them with the face down the danger of 
sunburniug is removed and flies are less apt to injure them. Pollock cured in this 
manner are always shipped whole for domestic trade and will keep for only a few 
weeks. 

In the vicinity of Jonesport, Me., a cure somewhat similar to tlie stockfish is 
applied to haddock, except that the fish are first lightly corned. The method is 
simple; the heads and viscera are removed, the bellies cut off, and the fish lightly 
corned for a few hours. They are then tied together by the tails and suspended over 
a pole or fence to dry, becoming quite hard and solid within a week or two. Small fish 
are used, the average weight when dried being from 1 to 2 pounds, and the product, 
which is very palatable, is entirely for local use. About -1,000 pounds of haddock are 
annually prepared in this manner at Jonesport, yielding 1,300 x^ouuds of " clubbed 
haddock," worth $125. 

Dunfish is prepared in such a manner that the resulting article has a dun or 
brownish color. It is of superior quality and is designed especially for use on the 
table uncooked. The manner of curing is somewhat lengthy, and it requires umch 
more care than curers ordinarily are willing to give to the preparation of fish for 
market. The fish are usually caught in the winter or spring, and immediately after 
being lauded are split and slack-salted, and then laid in piles for two or three months 
iu a dark storeroom, covered for the greater part of the time with salt hay or eel- 
grass and pressed with weights. At the end of that time they are dried for a few 
days in the open air and are again compactly luled in a dark I'oom in the same 
manner as before, for two or three months, when they are dried for two or three days 
and are ready for market. The process of preparing dunfish made the Isle of Shoals 
quite noted a century ago, but has fallen into disuse, though some is prepared there 
each year. 

Drake, iu Nooks and Corners of New England, says: 

The "duu" or winter tish, formerly cnred here, were larger and thicker than the summer fish. 
Great pains were taken in drying them, the lishermen ol'teu covering the "fagdts" with bedquilts 
to keep them clean. Being cured iu cold weather, tliey required but little salt, and were almost 
transparent when held up to the light. These fish sometimes weighed 100 pounds or more. The 
dunfish were of great esteem iu Spain and in the Mediterranean ports, bringing the highest prices 
during Lent. They found their way to Madrid, where many a platter, smoking hot, has doubtless 
graced the table of the Escnrial. In 1745 a quintal would sell for a guinea. 

The foregoing are the principal features in the curing of codfish on the New 
England coast. The amount of salt required, the time for exposing the fish, the 
length of the exposure, and so forth, are points which demand jjractical knowledge 



PRESEKVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 



397 



obtainable only through long experience. The process of curing hake, haddock, cusk, 
and pollock, except as above noted, differs iu no particular from that applied to cod. 
They are dressed and split in exactly the same inaimer aud require about the same 
amount of salting and similar treatment in every particular. Hake are not so likely 
to sunburn as cod and need not be protected from the sun. Pollock turn somewhat 
dark, and for that reason are not popular, but among connoisseurs are highly esteemed, 
especially when slack-salted. 

The loss in weight in dressing aud curing cod and other ground fish for the 
domestic market ranges from ."iO to 65 per cent, according to the species, the season of 
the year, and the extent of the salting and drying. The loss is greatest in case of 
haddock and cod and least in curing cusk and hake. Generally, large fish decrease 
more than small ones and large Shore decrease more than large Georges. From a 
number of records made during different seasons, the following summary is obtained, 
showing the average quantity of each kind of fish required to make a gross quintal 
(114 pounds) of dried fish suited for the New England markets: 



Speciea 


Poiinds required to make a quintal 
cured. 


Round. 


From the 
knife. 


From the 
hutt. 




Pounds. 
299 
288 
280 
2S8 
246 


Founds. 
206 
193 
184 
190 
178 


Founds. 
133 
131 
130 
131 
132 


Cod . . .. 




Hake 


Cusk 



Fresh split cod ready for curing contains about SO per cent of water and 1;^ per 
cent of salt. A large percentage of this water is withdrawn by salting, some by drying, 
and a much smaller quantity by compression, the latter process also removing a small 
quantity of the salt in the form of pickle. The resulting product, when prepared for 
the domestic trade, contaiii^s about 51 per cent of water and 19J per cent of salt. The 
stockfish of Norway contains about 17 ])er cent of water and li per cent of salt. 100 
pounds of cod, as they come from the water, will weigh about 00.9 pounds, dressed 
ready for salting, of which about 53 pounds represent water and 1 pound represents 
the weight of salt. The process of curing for domestic trade adds about 6.2 pounds of 
salt and removes about .'U.l pounds of water, of which 31.1 iiouiuls are removed by 
the salting and 3 jiounds by the pressing and drying. This results in 38.8 pounds of 
dry-salted fish, of which 18.9 pounds represents water aud 7.2 pounds salt. By con- 
tinuing the drying process and removing more water the keeping qualities of the fish 
are improved, but since it decreases the quality of the flavor as well as the weight of 
the fish, and adds to the cost of (iiiring, it is not desirable, unless the fish are to be 
shipi)ed to a warui climate and held there for a long time. To make a quintal of 
domestic-cured codfish reciuires 193 pounds of s,\A\t fish or 288 pounds of round fish, 
whereas to make an equal (luantity of fish suitable for export to Brazil requires about 
350 pounds split, and for 114 pounds of Norway stockfish about 474 pounds of split 
fish or 708 pounds of round fish are reijuired. 

Tiie co.st of the labor, salt, etc., varies in accordance with the fish being handled, 
the condition of the weather, the amount of drying required, tiie facilities for hand- 
ling the fish, etc., but generally runs from 38 to 50 cents per quintal, of which 15 to 



398 



BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 



18 cents represents tlie cost of tlie salt. It usually costs more to cure fish in July and 
August than in October, be(!ause of the greater difficulty in drying and consequently 
the increase in number of times that the fish have to be handled. An examination of 
a number of itemized accounts shows the average cost of handling cod from the round 
to the cured ijroduct to be 43 cents per quintal; haddock, 46 cents; hake, 40 cents; 
pollock, 43 cents; cusk, 43 cents. If the fish have been .salted on the vessel the cost 
of handling ashore will be reduced by the labor required for dressing, splitting, and 
.salting, and by the decrease in amount of salt useil, and ranges between -8 and 38 
cents per quintal. When green split cod costs If cents i^er pound, a quantity suffi- 
cient to make a quintal gross (114 pounds) would cost $3.84, and the cost of handling 
averaging 43 cents per cpiintal, it is necessary to sell the cured product at $4.27 per 
quintal gross to clear expenses. This cost of labor is so .small, compared with the 
original cost of the fish, that it pays to take the utmost care in the process of curing. 

The principal grades of dry fish are Georges cod, Shore cod. Grand Banks cod, 
h;ike, cusk, haddock, and pollock. Each grade of cod is further divided into large, 
medium, and small. Georges cod are generally the largest and choicest received, and 
are taken on Georges Bank, South Channel, Bi-owns lUmk, and adjacent flshing- 
grounds. The.se fish are usually heavily salted and dried only a day or so. The 
Grand Banks cod or " Bank cod " are taken on Grand and Western banks and Ban- 
quereau and are usually dried longer than the Georges or Shore cod. During recent 
years cusk have been divided into two grades, hirge and small, the former comprising 
all over 10 inches in length as received from the vessel. The prices of codfish vary 
according to the conditions in which they are sold, and probably the best guide to the 
comparative values of the different .species may be obtained from an examination ot 
the prices received as they are landed fnmi the vessels. 

The following shows the prices per quintal of the i)rincipal grades of salt fish on 
the Boston and Gloucester markets in January, Aj^ril, July, and October, 1898: 



Deaignation. 


January. 


April. 


Jnly. 


October. 




$6.25 

4. Oil 

5. OU tn $.'•). 25 
3.60 

4. 00 to 4.25 

3.50 

2. 25 lo 2. 37* 

2.50 

3.50 

2. 75 to 3.00 


.$.5.50(0*5.75 
4.00 

5. 00 to 5.25 
3.50 

4. 00 to 4.25 
3.50 

2. 25 to 2.50 
2. 00 to 2.25 
3.50 
2.75 


$5.50 
3.75 
4.50 
3.00 

4. 00 to $4. 25 
3. 25 to 3.50 
2. 00 to 2.25 

2. 00 to 2.25 

3. 25 to 3.50 
2. 75 to 3.00 


$5. 75 to $6.00 

3. 50 to 3.75 

4. .50 

3. 00 to :i.25 

4. 00 to 4.25 
3. 50 to 3. 75 
1.75 to 2.00 

2. 00 to 2.25 

3. 50 to 3. S^ . 
2. 50 to 3.00 




Shore cod. large 






Hake 


Haddock 


Pollock 



For the local market or nearby trade the whole fish are packed in rough bundles 
of one ipiintal, or 112 pounds, each, and tied with cords, or in wooden boxes holding 
from 100 to 450 pounds each. The 4.'J0-pound boxes are 40 inches long, 22 inches 
wide, and 16 inches deep, inside measurement. At Gloucester, Boston, Vinal Haven, 
and Portland large quantities are prepared as boneless cod (see pp. 400-405). In 
packing for expoit trade the fish are placed princii)ally in drums made of birch 
staves, with ends of pine and 8 hoops on each drum, and with capacity for 1, 2, 4, 
or 8 quintals, tightly compressed. 

The curing of codfish on the Pacific coast of the United States began in 1864 and 
has been continued with more or less success up to the present time, the annual yield 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 399 

now amoiintiDg to over 5,000,000 pounds, at an average value of about 3A cents per 
pound, most of the catcli being- made by vessels sailing from San Francisco and oper- 
ating in Bering Sea or at fishing stations on the islands bordering that sea. The 
methods pursued in the curing arc not dissimilar to those in vogue on the l^ew England 
coast. A small percentage are marketed hard dried with the skin on and the bones left 
in, being tied up in bundles of 75 to 100 pounds; but most of them are prepared as 
boneless fish after tlieir receipt at San Francisco. The product is marketed through- 
out the Pacific coast and exported to Australia, the Hawaiian Islands, and tlie Orient. 
According to Mr. Wilcox, Pacific coast boneless codfish has been most favorably 
received in Australia, where it has nearly driven the hard-cured stockfish of northern 
Europe from the market. Large {piantities of dried codfish from New England are 
shipped to the Pacific coast, especially to San Francisco. 

REDDENING OF SALTED CODFISH. 

Considerable trouble and loss have resulted to the dried codfish trade from the 
tendency of the prepared fish to turn red some time after it has been dried. It is 
especially noticeable with fish that have remained in the hold of the vessel for a long 
time, and occurs but to a limited extent with fish brought in on ice and then cured. 
It is attributed to various causes, among which are the removal of the gluten by 
pressure and the oil becominir partly rancid through age, but the most generally 
accepted theory is that it is due to vegetable organisms in the salt, especially in that 
produced by the evaporation of sea water by solar heat. 

At the instance of the United States Fish Commission, in 1878, Prof. W. G. Farlow, 
of Harvard University, made an investigation of the cause of this color and the means 
of remedying it. He attributed the trouble to a minute plant (Chilli roryntis romo- 
persicina), consisting of minute cells filled with red coloring matter. This plant was 
found on the floors and walls of the packing houses, and also in the holds of some of the 
vessels. It exists to a considerable extent in Cadiz salt, but not in Trapani salt, and 
when the latter is used the discoloration is not so likely to result. Consequently 
Trapani salt has almost entirely superseded the use of Cadiz salt in curing codfish. 
But even when Trapani salt is used the lish is likely to turn red, and in order to 
destroy the organisms the buildings are usually whitewashed inside as well as outside 
at least once a year. To overcome this diihculty it has been recommended that 
boracic acid be added to the pickle in the proportion of not less than 3 per cent of the 
water used. 

With the view to counteract this reddish tendency in cured fish, a method was 
patented* in 1883 by K. S. Jennings, of Baltimore, Md., by which the salted fish is 
snbjectcd to the action of sui)erheated steam (u- hot air to destroy the organic life in 
the salt with which the fish have been cured. He employed an endless woven wire 
apron hung on lollers and having within it a narrow box or pipe with a perforated 
toi). Into this box or pipe air or steam heated to a temperature of 400° or 450° F. is 
forced and discharged from it against the fish placed on the endless apron, the apron 
being revolved at such speed as will expose each fish to the action of the heat for 
about two seconds. It is claimed that by this method the exterior of the fish is 
heated sufficiently to destroj' the germs without iujuiiug the appearance or qualities 
of the fish, but the process has never been adoiited by the trade. 

* See Letters Patent No. 273074, dated Februaxy 27, 1883. 



400 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES PISH COMMISSION. 

Many curers endeavor to prevent this redness by sprinkling a small quantity of 
boracic acid and common salt over tlie flsli. About 1 pound of the acid is used to 40 
pounds of fish. This article was introduced in the codfish business about 1881 and 
is now quite generally used, particularly during the warm months, when it is found 
almost essential in order to keep dry fish in good condition for a few weeks or even 
days. It is generally employed in the form of a proprietary compound. 

In discussing the cause of the discoloration of Pacific coast codfish a prominent 
flsh-curer of New England states : 

The Alaska codfish turn oft'-color for precisely the same reason that our Grand Banks codfish do, 
when caught on long trips. The fish are piled very high in kecches, and the pressure of the upper 
tiers offish crushes tlie fibers and sacs between the fibers and all tUe white gluten is pressed out. In 
a Dutshell, the cause of codfish turning yellow is pressure. Our Georges codfisli are caught liy vessels 
which are very seldom out over a month, and a fare of 30,000 pounds in that tinu? is considered a good 
catch. These fish are all caught with hand lines. They are never piled higli in the kenehes, as there 
is no need of it, for there is plenty of room in the vessel for 30,000 pounds witliout piling them high, 
and so they are put into very shallow kenehes. They hold their weight, which is a saving to the 
fishermen, and they hold tlieir color simply because the fibi'rs and sacs which hold the white gluten 
are never crushed. Our (iraiul Banks fleet are gone from G loucester all the way from two to four months, 
and if they have hard luck are sometimes gone six months. If one of them comes in with a full fare 
in two months, her fish will be very much whiter on the average than one that has been out twice or 
three times as long. The fish may be piled up to the deck of the vessel and the fish in the lower part 
of the kenehes may be pressed very hard and the fibers and sacs crushed and then fish will turn yellow ; 
but if she stays out twice or three times as long they will be yellower still, because tliey have been 
pressed so much longer. But the greater part of her fish, viz, the latest ones that she caught and 
the tops of the kenehes, will be white. The nearer the top the whiter the fish ; the nearer the bottom 
the yellower the fish, and all due entirely to the amount of pressure they have received. I understand 
that the vessels that fisli (m tlie Alaska fishing-grounds are very large vessels, brigs, or barks, and they 
fish six months and bring in fares of half .i million pounds or more and they are pressed too much. 
The only way that Alaska codfish can be m.ade to hold their color is to send smaller vessels and bring 
smaller fares. The smaller tlic fare, if caught (jnickly, the whiter the fish. The longer the trip and 
the larger the fare, the yellower the fish. If you will examine transverse sections of Georges codfish 
and Grand Banks codfish from the top to the bottom of the kenehes with a microscope you will notice 
that the fibers of the Georges arc full of white gluten while those of the Bank codfish are crushed 
and flattened down, and there will be a variation in the fish according to the part of the kench they 
come out of. Grand Banks codfish and Alaskan, I think, are caught on trawls and tbcy struggle on the 
bottom ; while they are worrying on the hook and struggling to escape, the blood settles in against 
the skin. They may be very white on the face for all that, if they are well washed and soaked before 
salting. 

PREPARATION OF BONELESS CODFISH. 

The preparation of boneless codfish is doubtless the most important development 
in the handling of dried fish during the present century. For several years prior to 
1870 the need was felt of .some method of packing dried fish in neat packages of small 
but definite weight. A number of processes were devised and patented, but very few 
of them were found of i)ractical value. 

In 18G.S William D. Cutler, of Philadelphia, Pa., patented* a process by which the 
flsh were divested of skins and bones and run through a machine adapted to grinding, 
so as to thoroughly disintegrate the fiber of the fish, and if very fat and oily the 
disintegrated mass was then subjected to pressure to remove the sujierabundance of 
oil. It was then spread upon metal, stone, or other suitable surface, heated by means 

* Letters Patent No. 81987, dated September 8, 1868. 



PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 401 

of steam pipes passing beueatli the slabs, where it remained until thoroughly dry, 
probably from ^ to 3 hours, when it was placed iu close paper or woodeu boxes, each 
coutaining 1 pound or other suitable quantity. The product was somewhat similar 
to the article prepared in JTorway from stockfish and sold as "fish meal." Several 
thousand [)ounds of codfish were prepared in this manner and sold under the name 
"desiccated fish." This method was expensive, and the article lai;ked ijreservative 
qualities, being affected by atmospheric conditions to such au extent as to impair 
its food qualities; yet while the process extended little beyond the experimental 
stages, it was suflicient to attract the general notice of the trade and encourage the 
invention of methods of preparing a similar article. 

A few mouths later Elisha Crowell, of New York Uity, invented* a process that 
difl'ers little from the present method of preparing boneless codfish. 

The following description is given by Mr. Crowell : 

The object of this invcutiou is to so prepare coil auil other tish that it shall he. divested of every- 
thing not edible -which iiunecessarily adds to its weight and bulk, aud shall Ive redueed to the most 
convenient form for handling and transportation, while at the same time it is sufficiently protected 
from the action of the air. The nsiial method of iirepariiig such lish heretofore employed consists 
simply in salting and drying the fish in large pieces, each piece being generally one-half or the wh(de 
of a fish. In this condition It can not be conveniently packed iu small boxes, .and is therefore exposed 
to atmospheric influences wnlch injure its quality and taste. From the same cause it is not in a 
convenient condition for transportation or handling, and the refuse portions atld unnecessarily to 
its weight, while also deteriorating the ((uality of the article as an article of sale and common use. To 
obviate these disadvantages one manufacturer has ground up the fish, but when treated thus the air 
reaches directly every fiber of the lisli and soon destroys its taste, besides drying it up to such a 
degree that it becomes hard and "stringy" aud after a timealmost unfit for use. It can also be easily 
adulterated, eitlior with foreign sul)stances or with the ground skin aud bones or fish improiierly 
cured. In order to overcome all these disadvantages and produce au article which shall jiossess and 
retain all the delicate flavor of the codfish, while entirely clear of useless matter, aud in the most 
convenient possible condition for transportation, I remove the bones and skin, either liefore or after 
salting, and then cut up the fish into long, narrow strips. These strips I expose to the drying action 
of a current of air either naturally or artificially induced, so as to remove the moisture from the fish 
sufficiently for its preservation. The fish may bo cut up or stripped still more between one drying 
operation and the next. Salt is not usually applied during the operation. The strips thus produced 
are then cut into suitable lengths aud packed in boxes, kegs, or barrels to exclude the atmospheric 
iullueuces as far as possible. The retailor can pack the article in small boxes containing half a pound 
or a pound, etc., for the convenience of himself and his customers. 

In 1869 Benjamin F. Stephens, of Brooklyn, N. Y., patented t a modification of the 
process invented by William D. Cutler during the preceding year, this being a satura- 
tion of the compressed and granulated lish with glycerin to keep it moist and prevent 
extreme dryness. During the same year Joseph Nickerson, of Boothbay, Me., intro- 
duced a somewhat similar process, J consisting in removing the skins, bones, etc., from 
the salted fish, reducing the flesh to a granulated state, and then steeping it in 
brine until every particle of the mass was completely penetrated by the brine, after 
which it was pressed into molds, the pressure serving the double puri)ose of forcing 
out all surplus moisture and reducing the tish to hardened cakes of convenient size. 
Neither of these two processes has ever been used to any noticeable extent. 

• Letters Patent No. 84801, dated December 8, 1868. 
t Letters Patent No. 87986, dated March 16, 1869. 
t Letters Patent No. 88064, dated March 23, 1869. 

F. C. B., 1898—26 



402 15ULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

A somewhat novel idea is set forth iu Letters Pateut No. 90334, granted ou May 
25, 1SG9, to John Atwood, of Provincetown, Mass. He states: 

The object of my inveiitiou is to produce a wholesome article of food iu tlio nature of pre])ared 
fish that shall be reasouable iu price, couveuieut for cookiug, aud free from ott'eusive odor. The old 
method of drying fisli is well kuown, aud is open to many apparent objections. The new method of 
lircjiariug fish by desiccation is so expensive as to nuakethe price of the article to consumers a serious 
olijcctiou to the method. The cause of ordinarily cured fish haviug an offensive odor at all times, 
but more especially when the atmosphere is nn>ist, is the mucous membrane between the skin aud 
the flesh, which, when dried and afterwards moistened, becomes slimy and ofi:ensive. This is peculiar 
to the old method of curing and bundling fish. My method of preparing fish, which is particularly 
applicable to cod and haddock, is as follows: When the fish is fresh I take out the principal bones 
and fins, the fish remaining whole or split in halves. When partially dried or cured with salt I 
remove the skin, aud with it the entire mucous membrane, the cause of the ofteusive odor of salt 
fish. I then jiack iu light wooden boxes of convenient size — for instance, from 10 to 100 pound boxes, 
i'ish prepared after this method is white, clean, and sweet, aud will keep for any length of time. It 
will not dry up aud lose its flavor like the desiccated article, but remains moist and keeps the palatable 
flavor.of freshly cured fish. It can be freshened for the table in a few minutes, and can be brought on 
whole, as it is often desired to do so. This can not be done by fish cured by the old method, nor by 
any other modern process. 

It appears that these numerous patents were obtained all within a period of nine 
months, and it is claimed that about the same time other persons prepared dried fish, 
stripped of skins and bones aud packed in small boxes, without applying- for patents. 
At first only the inferior grades of fish were used, but as the new article met with a 
ready sale greater attention was given to tlie quality of the preparation. In 1870 
three fl.shdealers iu Gloucester ])repared this article, besides several concerns iu other 
parts of New England. The trade increased considerably, and in 1875 over 500,000 
pounds of boneless fish were prepared in Gloucester aloue. Nearly all of these fish were 
prepared in a manner somewhat similar to that of Elisha Orowell, and at first the 
preparers paid a royalty to him. Becoming dissatisfied with certain di.scriminiitions 
made by Crowell iu favor of particular firms, several dealers in Boston successfully 
contested his right to the royalty. Almost immediately the business assumed large 
proportions, and in 1879 about 12,000,000 pounds of boneless fish were prepared iu 
Gloucester, and over (5,000,000 pounds in other New England ports, giving employment 
to nearly 400 persons. At present the output of boneless cod amounts to about 
25,000,000 pounds annually, most of which is prepared in Gloucester, the remainder 
beiug put up at Boston, Provincetown, Portland, Vinalhaveu, etc. 

The geueral process of preparing boneless fisli is as follows: From the fiake yard 
the dried fish go to the "skinning loft." In skinning, each fish is placed flesh side 
down ou the skinning board, consisting of a soft piue block about 30 inches long, 20 
inches wide, and 2 or 3 inches thick, or of an inch pine board of similar length and 
width resting on two end supports. The dorsal, anal, and ventral tins are first cut 
away with a knife mnch like a splitting knife; theu grasping the skin at the napes 
the workman strips it off, usually in two pieces. The nape bone is sometimes torn out 
in the operation of removing the skin, but generally it is removed with a small iron 
gaff called a "bone hooker," which is about 8 inches long, with a curved shank and 
sharp point. The workman then turns the fish flesh up and cuttiug under the lowei' 
end of backbone or tail bone removes it. The dark membrane is then torn from the 
napes and any dark portion of the flesh cut away. Sometimes in dressing very choice 
fish a workman removes all the ribs and other small boues, making what is known as 
"absolutely boneless" fish. Aud in boning hake aud other small aud cheap fish the 



PRESERVATION i)F FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 



403 



tail lioiie is freiiueiitly left in, and sonicl lines the nape bones also, this being known 
as "(Iiessed fish." Hake and haddock are the easiest tish to preitare, and cusk are 
the most ditiUcult. The cost of skinning and boning ranges from 25 to 40 cents per 
100 pounds of prepared fish, depending on the class of fish handled. 

Tlie ordinary knives for catting boneless fish have hook-tipped blades from to 7 
inches in length, with white pine handles. For cutting cusk, which have tough bones 
and skins, a special knife is required, called a "cusk-bone knife," the blade of which is 
of finely tein[)cred steel, about If inches long, f inch wide, and -^\ inch thick at the 
back, with a square end. The handle is about -ti inches long by lA inches thick at the 
butt, tapering to a point at the blade end. 

The following summary shows the result (in pounds) from skinning and boning a 
quintal of the various grades of fish : 



Condition. 


Large 

Georges 

Cod. 


Large 

Bank or 

Shore 

Cod. 


Small 

Georges 

Cod. 


Small 

Bank or 

Shore 

Cod. 


Had- 
dock. 


Hake. 


Cask. 


PoUook. 


Tail and nape bones in 

Tail bone in, n.ipe bones out. . 
Tail and nape bones out 


Potinds. 1 Pounds. 
96 93 


Poundt. 


Pounds. 
90 
85 
82 


Pounds. 
90 
82 

78 


Pounds. 
91 
85 
82 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 
97 
94 


93 92 , 85 

gg A7 1 H^ 




82 















After being skinned and boned the lish are sprinkled with an antiseptic powder 
composed principally of boracic acid and chloride of sodium or common salt, and 
placed ill many sizes and styles of [)ackages, containing from 500 pounds down to 2 
pounds. The boxes are made of siiruce or pine, and the small ones, 5 pounds and 
under, usually have a sliding cover. The most popular sizes are 40 and GO jiound 
boxes, the dimensions of the former being usually 20 inches by 12 inches by 5 inches, 
inside measurement, and of the latter 20 inches by 12 inches by 8 inches, inside. In 
the larger size boxes the fish are usually placed without being cut. A neat way is to 
place two halves together, as in the round fish. Others are loosely rolled aud placed 
with the shoulders at the ends of the box and the tails overlapping, and choice 
Georges fish look very nice in that manner. Frequently when i)acked in the 40 or 00 
pound boxes each individual fish is cut transversely the width of the box aud folded 
over itself. Thick flsh are sometimes cut transversely and each piece split and folded 
over in such a manner that the clean cut appears outside. The fish are also sometimes 
cut transversely across the fiber, and tightly packed in boxes with the fiber running 
perpendicularly. In the small boxes the fish must of course be cut in much smaller 
pieces. The Spound boxes usually measure 10 inches by 8 inches by 4 inches. 

During the past fifteen years the packing of boneless codfish in 1 -pound and 
2 pound ''bricks" has become very iwpiilar. The skinned and boned fish are cut into 
small pieces (J inches long and 3 inches wide, as nearly as practicable, the cutting being 
done either by hand, by treadkiiives, or by special machinery. Two pounds weight 
of these are carefully placed in press compartments inches long by 3 inches wide 
aud 3^ inches deep, care being taken to have choice square pieces at the bottom and 
at the top, and either two or four strings of cotton twine are run through slits in the 
compartment, so as to pass under and around the brick of fish. The fish are then 
tightly compressed for a few moments, and ou removing the compression the strings 
are tied and the brick is removed. Many formsjsf presses are employed, the most 
usual cousisting of a sliding box having two or three compartments, each of the size 



404 BULLETIN OF THE ITNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

noted, and so arranged that a band or foot lever forces a block down in one compart 
inent at a time. The |)rc.ssiire remains while the lisli are being- placed in the second 
compartment, and when it is released the box is slid along until the second compartment 
comes under the press, when the brick is removed. When 1-pound bricks are desired, 
the 2-pouud packages are cut in lialf. The bricks are then sprinkled with antiseiitic 
powder, wrapped in parchment or waxed paper, anil placed in the packing boxes. 

A pound of parchment, costing 14 cents, contains about 172 sheets of tlie size 
necessary for l-jwiind bricks, and 113 sheets of the size necessary for 2pound bricks, 
thus nniking it cost 8.1-t cents to wrap 100 pounds of tlie former and C.2 cents for 100 
pounds of the latter size. One ream, or 4 pounds, of waxed paper for 1-pound bricks 
costs 30 cents, and 1 ream for 2-pound bricks costs 40 cents, making- the cost of using 
wax paper 0.2 and 4.2 cents, respectively, for 100 pounds of 1 and 2 pound bricks. 

Cutting into bricks was greatly facilitated in 1885 by providing a cutting board 
with pins at stated intervals to hold the fish when pressed down by hand, and with 
two sets of parallel grooves at right angles to each other cut into the board sutlicieutly 
deep to give direction to a knife which is drawn through the fish, these longitudinal 
and transverse grooves being separated by uniform distances conforming to the size 
of the bricks. In 1886 a somewhat intricate machine* was introduced at Gloucester 
for this purpose, and is now used in one or two of the establishments. It consists of 
a large rotating drum, the surface of which is provided with pins which enter the fish 
placed thereon and thereby hold them in position. On this the fish are fed, and the drum 
revolves intermittently, and at regular intervals a knife located above and parallel 
with its axis descends to cut the fish transversely, the drum rotating intermittently 
to permit the knife to cut the fish without heing crowded by them. These strips of 
fish are then carried forward by the drum beneath a series of rotary knives mounted 
upon a shaft, the axis of rotation of which is parallel with the axis of rotation of the 
drum, the strips being thereby severed into blocks. The length of the bricks is deter- 
mined by the distance covered by the fish between each descent of the vertical knife>, 
and the distance between the rotary knives determines their width. The pieces of fish 
are then carried forward beyond the rotary knives and are removed from the pegs by 
suitable strips or rods entering grooves in the surface of the drum and thus coming 
between it and the blocks of fish. 

A few months thereafter another machine t was introduced for the same purpose, 
but was never extensively used. This consisted of two revolving drums carrying a 
jdatform made in sections with longitudinal grooves, having small pegs in its surface 
to hold the fish placed upon it, skin side down, and so revolving as to press the fish 
against circular knives placed at suitable distances apart. The knives were rotated 
by the motion of the fish, and the latter were cut into longitudinal strips equal in 
width to the distance between the knives. As these strips passed beyond the knives 
they were raised off the pins and the platform by rods entering between the strips and 
the surface of the endless platform. A quantity of fish having been thus cut into 
longitudinal strips, they were returned to the front end of the machine and by means 
of a guide were again placed on the movable platform so as to approach the rotating 
knives at right angles, and as they passed under were cut transversely, forming 
rectangular blocks. The circular knives were so arranged that alternate ones might 

* See Letters Patent No. 346871, dated August 3, 1886, in favor of J. L. Shute and W. O. Taylor. 
t See Letters Patent No. 356725, dated January 25, 1887, in favor of Walter S. Moses. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 405 

be easily raised for the second cuttiny, raakiug the length of the blocks of fish double 
their widtli. 

During 1885 a machine* was devised for splitting or cutting these blocks hori- 
zontally, so as to provide suitable layers for the tops and bottoms of tlie bricks and to 
give a smooth, regular appearance more acceptable to the trade. This consisted of an 
endless belt adapted to hold and carry the blocks of fish to an endless cutting ribbon 
traveling parallel to and an inch or so over the belt, but it was not found sufficiently 
practical for general use. 

The cost of preparing and ))acking boneless cod in 1-pound bricks is about $2 per 
100 pounds, aside from the cost of the cured fish, apportioned as follows: Skinning 
and cutting, 30 cents; labor at press, 32 cents; wrapping paper, (5 cents; antiseptic 
powder, 10 cents; boxes, G3 cents; labor for cutting, powdering, aid wrapping, 10 
cents; miscellaneous labor, 10 cents, and plant and superintendence, 37 cents. The 
refuse skins and bones are used in the jireparation of fish glue and fertilizer, and their 
sale constitutes an item of considerable importance. 

It is stated that of the total quantity of boneless fish, an average of 00 per cent 
is prepared from cod, 28 per cent from hake, 8 per cent from haddock, and 1 per cent 
from cusk. Pollock are sometimes prepared as boneless fish, but the flesh is rather 
dark for this purpose. 

During the past six or eight years dried fish have been disintegrated and placed 
on the market under a number of trade names, such as "desiccated codfish," "fibered 
codfish," "flaked codfish," and "skriggled codfish." In jirepariug these specialties 
the fish are dried somewhat more than in case of boneless fish and all the bones are 
removed, a (juintal of fish as it leaves the butts making about 00 pounds of dried fish 
for this purpose. By means of a disintegrating or shredding machine the fibers of 
the flesh are thoroughly separated, giving it the appearance of fine wool. This is 
spread out under cover an inch or two deep on a platform table for further drying, all 
dark portions being picked out in the meantime. It is then placed in small paste- 
board boxes, usually coated with a varnish of rosin or paraffin and sometimes lined 
with waxed paper or i)archment, each box holding usually half a pound. This product 
is especially desirable for fish balls and creamed codfish. 

In 1885 a process! was introduced by which the disintegrated codfish was subjected 
to the action of hot water and then formed into cakes or blocks under pressure, in the 
following manner: 

Take cnreil or salted fish, remove the skin and the bones thoroughl}-, and then disintegrate the 
flesh by shredding, grinding, or some other convenient way of reducing it to small pieces. When in 
this condition, apply heated water to it, and immediately thereafter submit it to sufficient pressure 
in molds to expel the water and compact the lish and press the small pieces closely together, thereby 
funning the luass into cakes or blocks, the size of whicli can be regnl.ated as desired, from 1 pound 
upward, by the size of the molds employed. Subjecting the disintegrated fish to the action of hot 
water sufficiently dissolves the gelatin in the fibers to cause the small pieces of flesh to adhere to one 
another when they are firmly pressed together. Water heated to any temperature above 100" will 
produce the result, and even steam may be used; but it has been found that the most successful and 
satisfactory results are obtained by the use of water heated to a temperature between 120"-^ and 200°. 
If steam is used, the fish will be partially cooked thereby, which should be avoided. 

It is claimed that when fish has been treated and prepared iu this manner, the salt will not 
collect upon the outside of the cakes or blocks, as it does upon salt fish prepared by the methods in 
general use, and that the fish will not become discolored. 



* See Letters Patent No. 317469, dated May 5, 1885, in favor of Walter S. Moses and Oscar Andrews. 
t See Letters Patent No. 326099, dated September 15, 1885. 



406 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

FOREIGN CODFISH MARKETS. 

The world's iiiumal product of dried (lodlisli uow amoiants to about 600,000,000 
pounds, cured weight, the equivalent of 2,500,000,000 pounds of round flsli, ol)tained 
principally by the fishermen of Norway, Newfoundland, Canada, United States, aiiil 
France. The chief markets are France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Brazil. In 1S03 
France imported 04,218,948 pounds of codfish, valued at $4,940,037, without counting 
the large quantity cured by fishermen of that country. During the same year Spain 
imported 97,811,488 pounds, worth $4,795,278, and Portugal, 43,120,385 pounds, worth 
$1,789,500. The imports into southern Europe are xjriucipally from Norway and New- 
foundland; those into Brazil and other South American countries are largely from 
Newfoundland, and the West India trade is almost monopolized by shipments from 
Canada. While a steadily increasing export trade has been conducted by Norway, 
Newfoundland, and Canada, especially with the West Indies and Central and South 
America, the exports from the United States have very greatly decreased. 

A hundred years ago our exports of cod appioximated 500,000 quintals annually, 
at an average value of $4.50 per quintal. lu 1804 the exports were 507,825 quintals, 
worth $2,400,000, the largest quantity ever exported from this country in any one 
year. The annual exports decreased to about 300,000 quintals during the ten years 
following the war of 1812, and since that time up to the present they have approx- 
imated about 130,000 quintals annually. The exports during the ten years ending 
June 30, 1894, averaged 1(!, 200, 008 iionnds, worth $737,084, annually, or 20 per cent of 
the total quantity cured. Over half of these were sent to Haiti, and much smaller 
quantities went to Cuba, Dutch and French Guianas, Colombia, Santo Domingo, 
Jamaica, and various other countries, and especially to ports in the West Indies and 
South America. 

It thus appears that at present this country has only a small share of the 
trade in the principal codfish markets. Brazil, for instance, consumes about 500,000 
quintals of fish annually, of which the United States supplies less than 2 percent; 
and none whatever are sent from this country to the Catholic countries of southern 
Europe, the great fish-markets of the world. A century ago a large part of that trade 
was controlled by the United States, bnt since the domestic market will receive fish 
containing .50 per cent of moisture, while the Brazilian trade reipiires fish containing 
less than 25 per cent, greater profit has been found in supplying the home market, and 
nearly all the curers have contributed to that trade, resulting in a decrease in exports. 

CODFISH CURING IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 

In the British North American Provinces the codfish are cured in nearly the 
same manner as on the New England coast, except that they are dried much more 
thoroughly, and in many instances they are not salted in butts, but are spread on the 
flakes immediately after removal from the kenches. Bach morning they are spread 
out, flesh side up, and at night they are gathered in piles of 15 or 20, with skin side 
up, and with the largest on top as a cover to the rest. If the sun becomes too hoi 
during the middle of the day, they are turned with the flesh side down to prevent their 
being burned, but as soon as the great heat is over they are reexposed as before. 
When the fish are sufticiently dry, large piles are made, containing a ton or more, the 
whole being c;>vered with birch bark and heavy stones, which serve to express much 
of the moisture then remaining. After compression for two or three weeks the fish are 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY T'RODUCTS FOR FOOD. 407 

placed in a dry warehouse awaiting' a market. Before l)eiiig shipped tkey are spreail 
out oil the gravel during one midday to extract any dampness they may have con- 
tracted in the warehouse. 

For tliepur[)ose of comparison with our own methods the following notes on the 
methods of curing codfish in the in-incipal I'hu'ojjean countries are presented, the notes 
being abridged by Adolph Nielsen from volume ill of Norsk Fiskeritidende, Bergen, 
January and April, 1884: 

NORWEGIAN METHOD. 

As a rule the greater part of tho codtisli cau-^ht at Lofodeu is loft ia salt from three weeks 
to two months, all acconling to how the fishery turns out, and how quick tlie vessels purchasing 
fish can succeed in gettiiij; a full cargo. After the fish are taken from the salt they are generally 
washed out at the l)eaches, close to the drying places, which, as a rule, ciuisist of smooth and low 
rock, in the vicinity of the seaboard. In washing the fish woolen iiiittens are worn on the hands. 
After being carefully washed and the bl:i(d\ membrane removed from the napes, the fish is put in 
small sloping heaps on the rocks for tweuty-four hours, in order to allow the water to run off. In 
each heap are put from G to 8 lish, the undl^rmost with the skin side turned down, the rest with tlie 
skin side up. As soon as the weather allows the fish to be spread, after being in the heaps twenty-four 
hours, it is carried up to the drying place and spread out, face up If the weather is fair and safe, the 
fish is left out the first night, but the skin side is in that case turned up toward evening. Next morning 
the fish is again turned, face up. After being left out the second day it is gathered together toward 
evening and ]>ut in heaps, 'M or 50 fi.shin each. The next morning it is spread again, and in tlie evening 
is put in a little larger heaps. When the fish has been spread two or three times it is stretched well, 
especially in the abdomen, before being put in heaps, in order to remove all the wrinkles and give the 
fish a smooth appearance. This work is considered to be of much importance in regard not only 
to appearance but also to the durability of the fish, because the dampness always gathers in those 
wrinkles and is \ cry ditUmilt to get removed entirely if not done away with in time. It is slow work, 
liut they consider it better to devote one day to this than to go through it in a hurry in the evening when 
the fish are gathered in heaps for the night. Every time the fish are gathered in the evening in heaps 
these are uuide larger. After tbe fish has been spread three or four times, or when it is dry enough to 
stand i)ressiMg ( which is noticed on the abdomen of the fish that crack when the fish is bent), it is put 
into the first pile for jiressiug. These piles are built round, and a small round peaked roof or cover of 
wood, about a foot larger in diameter than the pile of fish, is made to cover the piles with. On these 
roofs weights of stones are applied. These piles or pressing piles, as they generally are named, are 
built from 3 to 3i feet high, the first time. 

After the fish has remained in those piles from five to eight days, according as the fish was more 
or less dry when it was put in piles, it is piled over into another and laiger pile in this way, that the 
undermost fish in this first pile is placed uppermost in the second, in which again the fish is left the 
same length of tinll^ as in the first one. If the weather after that time is suitable, the fish in these 
piles is spread every second day to dry, and for every time it is spread it is set in larger piles. If the 
weather is not suitable for spreading the fish, it is as often as possible piled over into new piles, 
in order to accelerate the cure and prevent the fish from afterwards turning slimy. The fish is not 
reckoned to be properly dry until it keeps itself dry underneath the dorsal fins, or is capable of 
withstanding the pressure of the thumb without leaving marks in the thick of the fiesh. After the fish 
has Ijeiu put in pressing piles and has been spread out for drying four to five times, it will, under 
fair circumstances, be reckoned to be properly cured. The usual time, under favorable conditions, 
taken to cure fish in Norway is about six weeks. 

FRENCH METHOD. 

The fish which is brought to Fiance is for the greater part bank fish, caught on the banks of 
Newfoundland and on the coast of Ireland. With the exception of the fish cured in St. Pierre and 
Miquelon, all this fish is cured in France, and the greater part of it in Bordeaux. To this port it is 
brought salted in bulk, in compartments in the vessel's hold, and cured as the orders arrive for 
certain quantities of fish. In splitting the fish the French cut the backbone a little farther from the 
tail than most nations do, and for this reason an iron spoon made for the purpose is used for removing 
the blood in the remaining part of the backbone. The fish is always washed well before it is put in 



408 BULLETIN OF TIIK UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

salt. Tliey geniirally reckuu on using 100 tons of salt (Mediterranean) to 2,000 hiinilrt-dweiglit of fisli, 
including tlie salt wliieli is nscil in preserving tlieir bait. While all other nations either nse rock 
beaches, or dirterent kinds of ll.akes to cnrc their tish on, the Frenchmen in Bordeanx nse scalfoUls. ou 
which tlie tish is hung liy the tail. This is held to he the most practical in France, liecause in this 
way the lish is cured exceedingly ((uick (from two to six days) with a minimum of labor expenses, 
and gives a real good article, although, .as before mentioned, not so durable. These scaffolds are made 
in the following way: A number of sticks are <lriven down perpendicular in the ground about IJ 
yards apart in a straight line from west to east, .across which are fastened a row of two laths, far 
enough apart to admit the tail of the tish to be pushed through. About seven-eighths of a yard 
above this first row of laths another row is fixed in the same manner. These laths are from three- 
(^ighths to five-eighths of an inch thick and from IJ to 2 inches wide. The arrangements of these 
scaffolds vary a little; some are fixed in sciuare compartments with laths fastened alternatidy on the 
north and south sides of the posts, and with a gangway .about 2 feet wide between each row of 
compartments. On others, again, the laths are all fastened on the north side of the posts .and each row 
of scaffolds about 3 yards apart, in order to prevent the shad<' liom the row in front reaching the one 
behind. Small cleats of wood are fastened across each ])air of laths, for the purpose of keeping them 
together. The tail of the fish is ])nshed in between the laths from the north side, with the back of 
the fish turned upward; by its own weight it will beml down, .and the face of the fish show toward 
the sun, while the tail is jammed l)etween the laths. When the fi.sh is getting a little dry it will hang 
tliis way even in a strong breeze of wind. Some have a roof covered with straw over their scaft'olds 
when the sun gets rather hot; othi'rs again use no covering, hut when the sun threatens to burn their 
lish the,v only twist it a little, so tliat the edge of the fish shows toward the sun instead of the face. 
In heavy rain, or when the sun is too hot, the tish have to be taken down and put in the stores. In 
France no pressing of the fish is used; as a rule it is taken down from the scaffolds and .shipped to 
m.arkets after being hung there from two to .six days. 

SCOTCir METHOD. 

In Scotland nearly .all of the fi.sh is pickled, very little of it is kench-cured fish. As soon as the 
lish is caught and unhooked it is bled and gutted. Some of the fishermen bring with them boxes in 
which to keep the lish; but if boxes are not used the fish is covered up in order to prevent the sun 
and air from affecting it. When brought to the shore it is headed and cleansed with brushes in fresh 
water, and split. The backbone is cut slantwise, 20 to 22 joints from the tail, so that the cut extends 
over two joints, in order to give the fish a better look and strengthen it. A cut is made along the 
bone which is left, thus allowing the blood that remains in the veins about that part of the fish to 
escape or be extracted. When split, the tish is again washed in sea water and. the black membrane 
removed. After the fish is cleansed it is pickle salted in tight-covered vessels. To 100 pounds of 
dry-cured lish is used 45 to 50 pounds of Liverpool s.alt. If less salt is used the fish is left in the 
pickle a couple of days more. 

In regard to the amount of salt used, the fjoard of fisheries remark that many of the curers 
salt their fish very heavily in order to increase the weight; but this is a great mistake, because not 
only is the juice of the fish extracted thereby and tlie weight reduced, but also, as the drying adviinces, 
incrustation of salt forms on the face of the fish, or, in other words, the fish gets s.alt-burned, and 
this debases the value of the fish very much. Lately, however, this wrong method of salting fish too 
heavily is abandoned in Scotland, because the curers find it to be in their own interest not to use too 
much. The fish is as a rule left in the salt for three days. The salting of the fish is a difficult work 
when the climate is damp. If the fish under such circumst.ances gets too little salt it will soon 
bcMome dun. Whether the fish has taken sufficient salt or not, and whether it has got the required 
stittness before being taken from the brine, the curer must be able to judge himself. Quite fresh fish 
never take more than just the proper amount of salt they claim, no matter how much salt is put on 
it; whereas old fish very soon get salt-burnt, if too much salt is used. 

When the fish has taken a sufficient quantity of salt it is taken up .and washed out again in sea 
water and placed in piles that slope a little for a day or two, in order to give the water a chance to 
run ort' before the drying commences. The fish, as a rule, is dried on flakes 3 feet high and i feet wide, 
the top of which is formed of wooden Laths 6 inches apart, something like the American flakes. 
On these flakes the fish is put out the first time with the b.ack or skin side turned down. Toward 
evening it is turned over, skin side up, and before sunset it is gathered in small heaps, always bearing 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR POOD. 409 

in niinil to leave the back side of the fish ttirnoil up. Tlie (ish is turned move frequently as the drying 
advances. The lioaps.are .'ilso made l.iiger every time tlie fush issjiread, and weights are put on top of 
eacli heaj) in order to give the lisli a litth' pressing and a .smooth face. The heaps are always covered 
with mats or canvas. The Scottish curers are also of the opinion that the lish gets frangible or 
brittle and presents a bad appearance if it is dried too rapidly in the beginning of the cure. When 
the fish is half-dry, one is able to tell whether it is salt-burnt or not. If the fish is salt-burnt they 
turn it back up in the middle of the day when the sun has the most power, by moans of which the salt 
gets extracted from the face of the fish. Mr. Ross, inspector of fisheries, recommends always to dry 
the fish with the skin side turned up from the time it is half dry. After it has been dried a fortnight 
it is put in large piles for ten days in order to allow the fish to sweat. The piles are covered 
well. Alter being taken from these piles it is spread out to dry for one week, after which it is again 
put iu large piles for another four to six d.ays. When after this it gets two or three days' drying it 
is considered to be properly cured and ready for shipment. The average time for making fish is 
reckoned to be from six to eight weeks. 

ICELAND METHOD. 

The cod fishery in Iceland is conducted by the natives in small open boats in the bays, and in 
some places a short distance from the shore. The gear employed by them consists of hand-line and 
bultows. As soon as the fish is caught it is bled; brought inshore, it is split iu this way, that the 
remainder of the backbone is left on .the opi>osite side to what is usual in Newfoundland and many 
other countries. The Icelanders split their fish very deep. After being split, the fi.sh is washed with 
brushes in cle.an sea water, the black membrane and all blood being carefully removed. A few also 
used to w.ash their fish in fresh water. The backbone is cut slantwise, over two Joints, and 18 to 22 
joints from the tail, according to the si/e of the fish. The salting of the fish takes place iu sheds as 
soon as the water has run oft' it, and it is salted in kenches with (me barrel of Liverpool salt to about 
350 pounds of large dry fish ; if the fish is small less salt is used. After the fish has remaineil two or 
three days in this salt it is resaltcd in new kenches; very little salt (about one eighth of a l>arrel of 
salt to 350 pounds of fish) is nsed. In this salt it remains for five or six days, and is then ready to be 
washed out and made, if the weather and the season of the year are suitable. The fish that is caught 
■so late in the fall that it can not be made before the next year, is salted in kenches so heavily that 
one fish docs not touch the other. This fish, they claim, will then, in the spring, be of about the 
sam(^ (luality as if it was caught the same year, provided it is washed or cleaned properly and all 
blood carefully removed. 

After the fish has remained a sufficient time in salt it is washed out and laid in small heaps, until 
the water has run oft' and a little stifl'ness is felt in the fish, which generally is so the next day, and 
if the weather then is fair the fish is spread out to dry; if not, it is relaid in square piles, from 100 to 
150 fish in each. If the weather should continue to be wet the fish is piled over in new piles every 
day, as long as the bad weather lasts, or until it can be spread. When the fish has been spread and 
got two good days' sun, it is put in pressing piles and the pressing is iucrcased according as the 
making of the fish proceeds. AVhen the cure is so far advanced that the fish is what they call three- 
parts dry, it is put in large piles, about 7,000 pounds of fish in each. These piles are covered with 
mats or boards in shape of a roof, and a weight of stones, which corresponds with the weight of the 
fish in the pile, is jjlaced on top of the mats or boards. In this state the fish is allowed to remain five 
to six days, after which time it is spread again, if the weather permits, and the same weight applied 
every time it is gathered and put back into the piles. In case the weather does not allow the fish to 
be spread, after it has been put in the first large pressing pile, it is replied every day and the same 
weight applied to each pile every time until it is considered cured. 

The fish is cured on beaches, which in most places are made of round rocks. The reasons why the 
Icelanders use such a heavy pressing in their cure of fish are: (1) That the climate is damp and 
not very warm (as a rule the sun is seldom hot enough to burn the fish, although this may happen 
occasionally) and that the weather is mostly cloudy or foggy; (2) that their fish is heavily salted; 
(3) that their fish is rich and thick, and stands a good deal of pressing. On account of the climate 
being chilly and damp, the pressing is therefore the principal part in their cure, and by frequently 
pressing and repiling the fish the cure is al *o accelerated. The Iceland fish is a fine, white-looking, 
good eating and durable article which commands good prices in the markets of the Mediterranean. 
Although it always is a little pliable, or not cured as hard as the Newfoundland and Norway fish, still 



410 lUILLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

it keei>8 well iu Imt cliiiiates, ;iud is preferred to the liard-cnrod fish, because it is not ao apt to gut 
lirittle and break. Fish cured in the early spring or in the fall of the year when the climnte is chilly, 
are, if sutliciontly ])rcssed and salted, superior to the hard-cured fish iu summer time, even if it is a 
little plialde, and will keep well in hot climates. Complaints of the hard-cured fish being brittle and 
difficult to hau<lle aie often made in the Mediterranean markets. 

When the fish is stored in Iceland it is kept well covered with mats or canvas in order to prevent 
the moist air from attecting the fish. The principal market for Iceland fish is the southern part of 
Spain, while a part is also exported to Copenhagen and Great Britain. 

STOCKFISH. 

In preparing stockfish in Norway each fish is bled as soon as taken from the 
water, care being taken that it be not bruised or mutilated. In dres.siug, tlie fish is 
split from the pectoral fin to the vent, thus leaving the sides connected about the 
napes and near the tail. The head and entrails are removed, after which each fish 
is well cleansed outside and inside with sea water. They are next tied together by 
the tails in pairs and susjieiided from thick strips about 2 feet apart, on top of stands 
about 8 feet high. The fish are hung on each side of the strips, care being taken that 
they are not .so close as to prevent the air currents from acting upon them. A two- 
pronged stick is generally used iu hanging them up aud taking them down. The 
grounds about the fiakes should be clean, airy, and devoid of all putrefying refuse. 
During summer the fish are generally split quite through, leaving only enough meat 
aud skin at the tail to support its own weight. The backbone is cut out from about 
three joints below the vent, and the fish hung up individually bj^ the tail in such a 
way that one half of the fish hangs on each side of the pole. Large fish, over 28 inches 
in length, are also split during the winter and spring. By far the greater portion of 
the stockfish, however, are cured round. 

The fish receive no further attention, being left out iu all sorts of weather, aud 
are not taken down from the time they are hung up until perfectly dry; that is, hard 
enough to withstand the strongest pressure of the tip of the thumb in the thick of 
the flesh along the back without giving away. In taking the fish down from the 
flakes, dry and fair weather should be selected in order not to leave any moisture 
aboirt the fish when it is stored. In preparing for exjjort, the stockfish is usually 
pressed and tied by wire into rectangular bundles, 20 by 24 by 29 inches, containing 
100 kilograms or about 220 pouTids. Bundles of 50 kilograms are also prepared. 
Norway is the only country in which stockfish is extensively prepared, about 400,000 
quintals being cured annually, the species used being cod priucipnlly, but also cusk, 
pollock, had<lock, and ling in smaller quantities. The chief markets are in Italy, 
Spain, Germany, Holland, and the tropical sections of the continents of America. 

The Russians ])repare stockfish in a somewhat diHerent manner from that of the 
Norwegians. The fish is split through the back and left solid in the abdomen. A cut 
about an iiich long is nnule through the upi)ermost part of the fish, and through this 
the fish is tied up on the flakes. They also prepare them in a manner similar to the 
Norwegian split fish, except that they do not usually take out the backbone. 

Before cooking, the stockfish should be soltened or disintegrated by beating with 
a wooden club and all bones removed. The flesh is then soaked for several hours, 
washed and (bained. In Italy thin fish are preferred to thick ones and the disinte- 
grated flesh is placed iu cold water over a fire and removed before the water reaches 
the boiling point, since boiling makes it tougli. Steaming is even a better method of 
cooking, making the flesh white aud soft. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 411 

DRIED AND DRY-SALTED SALMON. 

On the Alaskan coast the Indians dry many sahnon for their home use during tne 
winter, and also at times ))repare cod and other fish, tiie work being ])erformed mostly 
by the women. As soon as the salmon is caught the backbone is broken just back of 
the head, so as to kill the flsli at once and prevent its thrashing about and bruising the 
flesh. The fish is dressed by slivering the two sides from the head and liackbone, but 
leaving them connected at the tail, the knife being inserted just below the nape bone 
and drawn closely along the backbone to within 2 or 3 inches of the tail, when 
a similar cut is made on tlie other side and a stroke of the knife severs the backbone 
close to the tail. Frec^uently the large fish are marked by a number of transverse 
cuts in the thick portion of the flesh to facilitate the drying. The fish are then sus- 
pended from a pole or frame a few feet from the ground with the flesh outward, where 
they remain until ipiite dry. Sometimes when i)oles are not conveniently obtainable 
the two sides of the tish are separated and laid face up on the beach. 

The iirocess of drying requires from ten days to two weeks in ordinary weather. 
During rainy or cloudy weather the fish are placed under cover or turned with the . 
skin outward. After being thoroughly dried these fish are stored under cover out of 
I'each of dogs and children and form the j)rincipal food supplies of the natives during 
the winter, especially in the villages somewhat isolated from the trading stations. 

Salmon when salted are commonly held in pickle in tight barrels, but a few are 
dry-salted for especially clioice trade, in the following manner: The fresh flsii is placed 
in a cool place until the flesh is firmly set, when it is eviscerated and split down the 
back, so as to layout flat, and the head and three-fourths of the backbone are removed. 
If desired, the flesh may then be smeared with blood of the fish to impart a reddish 
color in the cured product; otherwise it is wiped clean and placed skin down in a 
salting tub having a layer of salt in the bottom and a layer of ¥0. 2 salt spread 
evenly over the fish. Other fish similarly salted may be placed in the salting tub, but 
not so many as to compress the bottom layers too much. The flavor is improved by 
adding sugar or saltpeter to tlie salt, about an ounce of either for each fish, and 
crushed peppers may also be added if desired. The fish remain in the salt from l.J to 
3 days, when they are removed, trussed in the manner so usual in smoking (see 
page 494), in order to keep them out flat, and suspended in a sliady but windy place 
until dry. The fish should be kept in a cool, dry place until used, which need not be 
for 2 or 3 months, according to the extent of the salting and the adaptability of the 
place where it is stoied. Some persons jtour a glass of cognac over the dry tish and 
allow it to soak in to improve the flavor, but this is a matter of taste. The prepara- 
tion of salmon in the above manner is of very small extent, and none of the product 
goes upon the general market. 

The first volume of the Transactions of the Highland Society of Scotland describes 
the method of drying salmon in vogue in Scotland a century ago as follows: 

Kippered salmon .are prepared liy cutting tbem smoothly along the Imck from the tall to the 
head. The chine, or backbone, is then cut out and all the blood and garbage cleared away. The 
fishes are then salted and laid above each other, witli the fleshy sides in contact, in a trough, commonly 
scooped out of a solid piece of beech, placed in a cool situation. A lid which exactly fits the aperture 
is placed above them and pressed down by heavy weights. After the fishes have imbibed a sufficient 
quantity of the pickle they are stretcheil npon small spars of wood and hung up to dry where there 
is a current of air. Sometimes they are hung in the smoke of a kitchen fire, which preserves, indeed, 
but conveys a bad flavor. Some, in order to communicate a particular flavor, mix spices with the 
salt, or they rub the fish with spices before they are hung up to dry. 



412 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES PISH COMMISSION. 

DRY-SALTED MULLET. 

In the extensive miillet fisheries of the southern coast from North Carolina to 
Florida large quantities of this species are dry-salted or kench-cared, the annual 
output on the coast of Florida amounting to nearly 2,000,000 pounds. Some are 
pickled in brine, but the majority on the west coast of Florida are dry-salted. The 
process employed is as follows: 

Dressing begins as soon as the fisli are landed at the station, which is generally 
within a few minutes after they are removed from the water. In splitting, each fish is 
taken in the left hand with the tail toward the splitter, and by means of a knife it is 
opened along the left side of the backbone from the head to the tail, in nmch the same 
way that mackerel are split. All viscera are then removed and a gash or "score " is 
cut along the right side of the flsli, which contains the backbone, in order that the salt 
may the more readily penetrate the Hesh. In some localities the heads of mullet are 
removed before the fish are sjdit. When roe-mullet are taken the roe bags are carefully 
removed while the fish are being eviscerated and are salted sei)arately. The blood and 
black stomach membrane adhering to the napes are then scraped away and the fish 
are thrown into a trough of clean salt water, where they remain tor a few minutes and 
are thoroughly washed, all particles of blood being carefully removed. On removal 
from the washing tank or barrel the fish are rubbed thoroughly with salt, Liverpool salt 
being most commonly used. They are next piled up under cover in kenches, with a 
sprinkling of salt between each layer, with the backs placed downward, as is the case 
with green cod, so as to retain the dissolved salt. These kenches are ranged in regular 
(U-der, with the heads of tlie fish outward, and extend 3 or 4 feet in height. In some 
localities, after the salting and before kenchiug, the two sides of the fish are brought 
together again, leaving the fish in natural shai)e, with the abdominal cavities filled 
with salt. 

When a large haul of nuillet has been made the work of dressing and salting 
must be rushed to prevent the fish from becoming tainted; and in warm weather, 
es])ecially during August, if the fish are not salted within a few hours after landing 
they are apt to l)ecome discolored or to rust. The fish remain in these kenches until 
they are to be placed on the nuirket, which may not be for three or four months. 

In preparing for shipment the salted mullet are placed in boxes or tied up in 
bundles. No uniform style or size of package is used, resulting naturally in much 
confusion and inconvenience to the trade. Some fishermen simply bundle the mullet 
in such a way that the skin side is outward, while others cover the bundles with a 
single layer of matting or palmetto leaves. When carefully jirepared these fish are of 
excellent quality, except that those cured during the warm weather of July and 
August sometimes rust. 

The following method of curing mullet is recommended to those who wish a really 
choice product without regard to the cost of preparation: 

Tlie fri^sh fish are cut aloug the ventral part aud eviscerated. Tliey are next soaked for two 
honrs or so in salt water, beheaded and split down the back, and the backbone removed. Four or five 
cuts are then made transversely across each half of the fish on the inner surface, and the fish are 
packed in dry salt, where they remain for about one week. On removal they are washed to remove 
the slime, undissolved salt, etc., and then suspended in the shade, where they are allowed to dry 
for live or six weeks. Each tish is then sprinkled witli line table salt and carefully wrapped with 
waxed or paraffin paper to exclude the .air, and sus])eiided in a well- ventilated room, where it m.ay be 
kept for several months under favorable eiinditions. 



PRESERVATION OK FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 413 

DRY-SALTED CHANNEL BASS. 

Channel bass or drumflsh are caught in considerable numbers along the south 
Atlantic coast during the late summer, and the small demand for them in the fresh- fish 
trade results in many of them being salted for local use during the winter, especially 
along the North Carolina Banks. The following process is employed: 

Each fisli is split ilowu the belly and eviscerated, the head is cut oft' with a hatchet or large 
knife, the backbone is removed, and the fish split in halves. Each half or fletch is then scored 
lengthwise from the napes to the tail on the flesh side, the cuts being about 2 inches from each other 
and penetrating the flesh to the skin. The lletches are washed free from blood, etc., and placed iu 
barrels or vats with dry salt sprinkled in abundance .among them and with strong brine poured over 
tlieui. When sufliciently cured the lish are removed from the pickle and placed iu the open air on 
boards, benches, or any convenient place for drying. Care must be taken to shield them from rains, 
and they should be placed under cover at night to protect them from heavy dews. When sufficiently 
dried they are stored in a cool, dry place until marketed. 

The reduction in weight through dressing amounts to about 50 per cent, and 
through curing and drying about .'j.'i per cent additional, making the dried weight 
about 35 per cent of the round weight. The only market is among the coast people — 
among the fishermen and their neighbors on the mainland. They sell for 8 to 15 cents 
per side, or 15 to 30 cents per fish, an equivalent of 1 to 2 cents per iiound. 

DRY-SALTED KINGFISH. 

The great bulk of the kiugtish caught in this country is .sold in a fresh state; but 
at Key West and some other points on the coast, when the fresh-fish market is fully 
supplied, the suri)las catch is salted. The nn-thoil usually employed at Key West in 
drying and salting the fish is thus described by Mr. W. H. Abbott: 

If the fish are not disposed of the first day after being caught, they are lightly salted and dried 
in the sun, in which condition they will keep for a week or two, and if tbo weather is favorable they 
will probably keep a week longer, and if quite thoroughly dried the fish will Iccep a much longer 
period. Generally the fisherman is a man of very little means and has no capit.-il to work with; 
consequently the supply of salt which he is able to buy is very small. The salt used is from the 
Bahama Islands. The fi.sh are laid on a box or bench and the thick part of the fish cut transversely, 
nearly through to the skin, at distances of 1 to li inches .apart. After the fish have been prepared iu 
this waj', the fisherman takes a small amount of salt and carefully sprinkles it over the entire surface 
of the fish and into the cuts, bo as to make sure of their being properly cured. He is very careful not 
to waste the salt by scattering it about otherwise than on the tish. If the fish are to be sold iu a few 
days, they are not exposed to the sun; but if to be kept for a longer period it is necessary to have 
some of the moisture taken out by the direct rays of the sun. 

Ill a rejiort on the Gulf fishing-grounds and fisheries, by J. W. Collins, the follow- 
ing description occurs: 

• 
As a rule, the great bulk of the kingfish taken by the Key West fleet is sold and eaten in a fresh 
C(mdition, but occasionally some fish arc salted on the boats, and a greater i|iiautity arc S]dit and salted 
after thi>y are landed, the surplus being disposed of in this manner. These salted lish arc often dried 
and to facilitate this and to insure the more thorough drying of the fiber the thick part of the flesh 
is cut transversely nearly to the skin, at a distance of about an inch apart. There is no systematic 
method of drying, as iu curing cod, but the fish are hung .across rails, spread on wood piles, or 
disposed of in any other manner where they may have a chance to dry, a favorite method being to 
suspend them Ijy the tail. Cured in this way they make tolerably good food, but it is altogether 
probable that a much finer article of food might be obtained by smoking the fish. 

The amount of kingfish prepared for market iu this way is uot known, but it is 
relatively small. 



414 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

DRY-SALTED BARRACUDA AND BONITO. 

On the southern coast of California, in the vicinity of San Diego, from 150,000 to 
300,000 pounds of barracuda {Sithyra'na argentea), about half that quantity of bonito 
{8arda chilcnsis), and some yellow-tail or aniberfish (>SerioIa dorsalis) are annually 
dry-salted and sold in the markets at 3 or 4 cents per pound. As soon as practicable 
after they are removed from the water, they are split down the belly and dressed like 
cod, only the backbone is not usually removed, and heavily salted in kenches similar 
to those on the New England coast. When the weather is favorable the tisli are 
washed and spread on drying flakes, the cure being completed in two or three days in 
case of barracuda, while a greater length of time is usually required for bonito. lOil 
pounds of round tish make about 50 pounds dried. When properly cured barracuda 
present an iuviting appearance, being white and dry, and the flavor is excellent; but 
most of the California i)roduct is said to be dark in color and with a strong flavor, 
due probably to faulty methods of curing. 

CHINESE SHRIMP AND FISH DRYING. 

In the Barataria region in Louisiana, along the shores of San Francisco Bay in 
California, and at other points on tlie Pacific coast, there are camps of Chinamen whose 
principal occupation is the drying of shrimp and fish, mainly for Oriental markets. 
Their output also includes miscellaneous varieties of fish, oysters, squid, etc., the 
aggregate annual product amounting to about $100,000 in value. 

Tlie drying of shrimp was begun in Louisiana in 1873 by Ciiin Kee, whose plant 
was located on the western bank of the Mississippi lliver opposite New Orleans. The 
following season he moved to Bayou Dupont, nc^r the head of Grand Lake, about 80 
miles below New Orleans. In 1880 a second establishment or " platform" was built near 
Bayou Cabanage. A third platform was built in 1885 at Bayou Aiulrc. The business 
continued fairly prosperous until 1803, when the severe storm in October completely 
destroyed the Bayou Aiidr*' platform and camps and severely damaged the other 
two platforms. The latter, however, were immediately repaired, and in 1897 another 
platform was erected about a mile above Cabanage. 

The.se shrimp-drying establishments consist of a large platform, on which shrimp 
are dried, the necessary furnaces and kettles for boiling, warehouses, living apartments, 
storehouses, wharfage, apparatus, etc. The platforms range in area from 25,000 to 
80,000 square feet, and are substantially built of i)iue boards 1 inch thick with close 
joints. The number of employees at each establishment ranges trom G to 12. 

Prior to 1S8(! the shrimp were boiled in kettles over open fires, but since that date 
greater neatness and economy of fuel have been secured by the use of a grate with a 
chimney, somewhat similar to the old form of sugar-boiling. The kettles over the 
grates are 5 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 18 inches deej), with a division in the center. 

The shrimp are received from the fishermen each day, thus insuring their fresh- 
ness and rendering the use of ice unnecessary. Prior to 1888 the price paid was 80 
cents per basket, containing about 84 pounds; but since that date the price has been 
uniforndy <!5 cents per basket. VVlien measured and received from the boats, the 
shrimp are rinsed and placed witli water and tlie necessary quantity of salt in the 
kettles, each kettle holding about 5 baskets of shrimp. About 4 or 5 pounds of salt 
are used lor boiling 100 pounds of shrimp, Liverpool salt being preferred, but coarse 
American salt is also used. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY T'RODUCTS FOR FOOD. 



415 



The brackish lake water suffices for cooking, and it is used for several successive 
boilings, additional water and salt being added as necessary. The shrimp are boiled 
for live or ten minutes, when the cover is removed and the shrimp stirred thoroughly 
with a paddle or other appliance. The cover is then replaced for 10 or 15 minutes 
longer, when the shrimp are removed with perlorated skimmers or shovels ;ind spread 
on the platform, where they are exposed to the aitiou of the sun, being turned and 
separated at intervals during the day and covered, when necessary to protect them 
from moisture, until the drying is completed, this usually requiring two or three days. 
When shrimp are coming in plentifully tlie boiling is frecjneutly kept up all night, the 
boiled shrimp being placed in heaps on the platform and covered with canvas until 
morning. When thoroughly dry, the Chinamen, with clean shoes or moccasins, tiead 
them for a time to detach tlie shells and heads from the main part of the flesh. These 
shells and light panicles are fanned off by throwing the shrimp upward through the 
air, somewhat in the same style as that practiced with wheat, rice, and other similar 
grains. The meats of the shrimi) are tlien placed in sacks, beaten and thoroughly 
shaken to complete the breaking up and removal of the shells, after which they are 
again winnowed or passed through hand sifters, so as to remove all dust and particles 
of shells adhering to them. They are next made ready for shipment by placing them 
in flour barrels, containing about 200 pounds each, and are sent to the various markets. 
In packing, the shrimp should be graded, the whole bright meats being kept separate 
from those broken or discolored on account of rains during the process of curing. 

Each basket of green shrimp yields about 9A pounds of dried shrimj), which sells 
for about 14 cents per pound. The market is among Asiatic races almost exclusively. 
The great bulk is sent to San Francisco, but some are shipped to New York, Philadel- 
phia, Chicago, and Havana. From San Francisco the shrimp are sent to China, Japan, 
and throughout the west coast of the United States. The quantity dried during the 
jtast four or live years in Louisiana has been much less than iirevious to 1893, and the 
profits have greatly decreased, owing to competition with Mexican ports. 

The following summary shows the quantity prepared in Louisiana during each 
year since 1886 : 



Tear. ! P'}^'^ 


Tear. 


Dried 
ahrimp. 


1887 


Povnds. 
304, 200 
319, 1100 
346, 400 1 
293, 600 
280, 200 
285, 200 


1893 


Pounds. 
121, 800 
83, 200 
116,000 
144,400 
151, 400 


1888 


1894 


1889 


1895 


1890 


1896 


1891 


1897 


1892 







The method of drying shrimp pj-acticed by the Chinese at San Francisco is thus 
described by Mr. Kichard Eathbun: 

Alter the day's fishiug is over it is usually customary to carry the fresh shtiini) to the Vallejo 
street marUet iu Sau Francisco iu live-baskets covered with a uettiug, which has a hole in the center 
closed by means of a puckering string. At the market the live shrimj i sell at the rate of about 10 cents 
per pound, and those remaining unsold are carried back to the Chinese settlement and put at once into 
boiling brine. The kettle for boiling the shri inp is a rectangular iron tank 6 feet long by 4 feet wide and 
2 feet deep, with a fireplace underneath. After sufBcient boiling, care being taken to prevent over- 
cooking, the shrimp are taken out and spread to dry upon level plats of hard ground, which have been 
previou.sly stripped of grass and reudiTcd jierfectly smooth. They are spread out and turned oicasion- 
ally by means of a hoe-like broom. After four or live days, or when per,eetly drj-, they arc crushed under 



416 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

large woodeu pedestals, or trod upon by tlie Chinese in wooden shoes, for the purpose of loosening 
the moats from the outer chitinous covering, after which the entire mixture is put through a fanning 
mill for the ;ictual separation of the meats and shells. The fanning mill, a somewhat crude affair, is 
constructed of wood by the Chinese on precisely the same principle as the one used for winnowing 
grain. It measures about 8 feet long by 5 feet high, and consists of a square box, divided on the inside 
for the passage of the separated shells and meats, with a hopper above, and a large fan wheel worked 
by a crank at one end. The meats are partly used at home or at the various inland Chinese settle- 
ments, but are mostly shipped to China. The shells are also utilized as manure to some extent about 
San Francisco; but, like the meats, are mostly sent to China, where they serve as a fertilizer for rice, 
tea plant, etc. In San Francisco they sell at about 2.5 cents per hundredweight. Both the meats and 
shells are shipped to China in sacks. The trade is entirely in the hands of Chinese merchants, who 
ship by way of Hongkong. The meats are eaten by all classes in China, but are cheaper and less 
esteemed than the native shrimp, which are comparatively scarce. 

Dried shrimp form a very popular article of food amoug Asiatic races and are 
worthy of more exteuded use in this country. They are very nice rolled in butter and 
fried, good for making curry, and for " jumbalayer" they are excellent. In China many 
of the broken shrimp are made into paste by grinding between stones. 

In 18S5, in connection with their shrimp drying, the Chinese on the Louisiana 
coast dried a quantity of oysters for market, but the venture was unsuccessful on 
account of the high price at which it was necessary to sell the product in order to 
reimburse them for their outlay, 50 cents per pound for the dried oysters being 
scarcely sufficient to meet expenses. 

The tails of the rock lobsters or salt-water crayfish (Panulirus interruptus) arefre- 
(jueiitly dried in the sun without previous boiling or salting by the Chinese on the 
Pacific coast, but the aggregate of the business is not large. 

Since 18S5 the Chinese located at Barataria Bay, Louisiana, have dried a quantity 
of fish each summer. In doing this they make teinporary ([uarters on Timbalier 
Island, in Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana, using old material from the permanent camps 
in Jefter.son Parish. Tarpanliu or palmetto supi)lies sheltering for the workmen, and 
small slat- work frames, about 8 feet long by 4 feet wide, are used for holding the fish, 
which are turned every few liours by placing a second frame on the one holding the fish, 
turning both together and then removing the first frame. The season exteuds usually 
from May 1 to June 30, and from one to three weeks is necessary for the drying. 

All varieties of salt water fish are there dried except the small bony ones and 
those excessively fat. Few of the fish are dressed before drying, the head, scales, fins, 
and viscera remaining, except that the large redfish or channel bass are eviscerated 
and have the heads and fins removed. The fish are purchased from the seiners at a 
cost of .$1.4(1 per basket, containing about 08 pounds. A basket of green fish yields 
about 47 pounds of dried, which sells for 4 or 5 cents per pound wholesale. In 1897 
the two companies operating on Timbalier Island received about 1,300 baskets of fish, 
which yielded 61,100 pounds of dried fish, valued at $2,930. 

On the Pacific coast the Chinese usually remove the heads and viscera from the 
large fish, and jn some localities they salt the fish in brine and then dry them, much 
like the juescnt method of curing cod. Some of the larger sharks and skates are 
split through the back and hung on poles. The barracuda, albacore, and bonito are 
split lengthwise along the back, soaked for 2 days in brine, and then dried in the sun, 
losing about 50 per cent of their weight in drying. The flesh of the dried barracuda 
resembles codfish somewhat, being white and firm. They usually sell in San Francisco 
at 3 or 4 cents per pound wholesale. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PivODUCTS FOR FOOD. 417 

The redfish [Ti-ochmiipun pulrher) are dressed by opening the abdomen and 
removing the viscera, and Ohiuaincn exliibit much ingenuity in giving a picturesque 
appearance to the head and teeth of this species. According to Dr. D. S. Jordan: 

A "juuk" witli the deck covered with drying redfish seems at a little distauce to be full of frogs 
;il>oiit to leap. Somelimes I have noticed that the fatty protuberance on the forehead of the redfish 
has been cut off. This is valued .is a delicacy and used for fish chowder. 

Squid are dried in small (juantities by Chinamen on the coast of California. They 
are washed and spread out on small slat-work platforms or flakes. The large squid 
are iirst split, but the small ones are dried in the condition in which removed from the 
water. The largest squid-drying establisliment is located at Point Alones. There 
some of the Hakes are placed on the ground, but the majority are elevated on posts 2 
or 3 feet high, and resemble somewhat the codfish flakes of New England, the jirin- 
cipal difference being that the squid Hakes have the slats much closer 1;ogether than 
those used for codfish. About 10 days are required for the process of curing, and no 
salt whatever is used. When thoroughly cured they are packed in bundles, each 
containing about 135 pounds and upward, and each package is covered with matting. 
They are sent to San Francisco, where some are sold to the domestic trade, and the 
remainder exported to the Hawaiian Islands and to China. 

DRIED STURGEON PRODUCTS. 

In the sturgeon fisheries of Russia and of Asiatic countries, and quite recently, 
to a small extent, in the Columbia Kiver fisheries the spinal cords of the sturgeon 
have been utilized. After being cleaned and dried this substance is excellent for fish 
l^ies, soups, chowders, etc. The method of its preparation in Russia is as follows: 

After the fish has been eviscerated an incision is made in the llesh, and by means of a hook enough 
of the spinal cord is drawn out to furnisli a good hold for the fingers, by means of which the whole 
is extracted in a baud, 4 or 5 feet long, consisting of a round whitish substance, marked or slightly 
disconnected at intervals like sausage links. It is carefully washed in fresh water to remove the 
blood and slime, and is then drawn by a workman between the edge of the washtub and his left hand, 
or similarly compressed, to remove the soft viscous matter or nerve tissues contained within; or some- 
times it is cut open and those tissues scraped away and discarded. After this operation the substance 
is rinsed in another tub of fresh water until it becomes quite clear, and it is then exposed in a free 
circulation of air until it is thoroughly desiccated. For marketing, it is cut into pieces 4 or 5 inches 
in length, or it is tiad in bundles composed of a number of spinal cords. Go the Columbia River it 
sells for about 40 cents jicr pound, and in Ru.ssia it sells for the ei|uivalent of 40 to (!0 cents per pound, 
25 of the common sturgeon of Russia {Jcipeiiser yuUhiistiidlii} being reiiuired to furnish 1 pound of 
v^ziga or viaziga, as the product is commonly known in the European markets.' 

The prei)aration of the spinal cords of sturgeon on the Columbia River is thus 
described by Mr. W. A. Wilcox :t 

One product of the sturgeon is used 'entirely by the Chinese, namely, the spinal marrow. As 
soon as the fish are landed at the packing establishment a Chinaman, armed with a hook, pulls out 
enough of the marrow to furnish a good hold; then, seizing it, draws the remainder of it out, hand over 
hand. In the average-sized sturgeon the spinal cord is 4 or 5 feet long and consists of long, white con- 
necting links resembling sausages. These are cut open and the jelly-like substance contained within 
is scraped ofi' and thrown away. This m.irrow is known by the Chinese and the trade under the name 
of "bone." It is thoroughly dried, and if not sold to the Chinese in this country it is exported to 
China, where it is much prized for making soups. The Chinamen pay 4 cents a pound for this " bone" 
and remove it from the fish themselves. 

* See Rapport sur les Expositions Internationales de Peche, par J. L. Soubeiran, Paris, p. 151. 
t Report U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries for 1893, p. 252. 

F. C. B., 1898-27 



418 BULLETIN OK THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

The following description of the methods of drying sturgeon meat — or, more prop 
eriy, the dorsal portion of the fish — in Kussia is extracted fiom Alexandre Schult/.'s, 
"Notice sur les jjC'cheries et la chasse aux phoques dans la Mer Blanche, I'Ocean 
Glacial et la Mer Oaspienne," St. Petersbourg, 1873: 

For making good "balyk" a large and tolerably fat fish is selected, whose bead, tail, sides, anc^ 
belly are taken oH'. That which remains, the dorsal part, has to undergo'a special salting, while tlio 
other parts are salted in the usual manner. The backs of the common sturgeon ( Acipenser guhlenstiidHi 
and of the "s<5vriouga" {Acipenser stellatiis) remain entire, while those of the large sturgeon (Acipeiiser 
huso) are cut, either lengthwise only or else both lengthwise and crosswise. The pieces are placed in 
a tub so as not to touch each other nor the sides of the tub ; and they are left thus after having beeu 
covered with a thick layer of salt from 9 to 12 days, and even 15 days when the pieces are large and 
the weather is hot. The salt l.s mixed with a little saltpeter, to give to the balyk a reddish color, 2 
pounds of saltpeter to 50 poods [1,800 pounds] of balyk. Allspice, cloves, and bay leaves are 
frequently put into the brine. When the salting is finished, tlio balyk is put into water for a day 
or two, in order to detach all particles of the brine from it. Thereupon it is dried, first in the sun 
and then in the shade, on roofed scatfoldiugs, which are erected for the purpose. This last-mentioned 
operation requires from 4 to 6 weeks, and is considered finished wlien the balyk begins to cover with 
a slight mold, the absence of which shows that it has been salted too much. 

Good balylv must be as soft and tender as smoked salmon; must have a reddish or orange 
brown color; and must have an odor something like that of the cucumber; it must also bo trausijarent, 
show no traces of putrefaction, nor have a bitter taste; and, finally, it must not be too salty. 
There are very few manufacturers who can prepare balyk that has all these qualities. 

A pood (36 pounds) of good balyk costs at the manufactory at least 18 rubles ($12.60), and at 
retail it can seldom be bought for less than 1 ruble (70 cents gold) a pound. The balyk made in 
March is considered the best. On the banks of the Koura, and in the trans-Caucasian waters, where 
the scvriouga {Acipenser steUatus) is caught iu large numbers, balyk is made of at least 300,000 of 
these fish every year. This balyk, commonly called "djirim," is not of the first ([uality. It is dry, 
very salty, and is much sought after by the inhabitants of Kachetia, because it produces thirst and 
gives them occasion to qneuch it with the excellent production of tlieir vineyards. A large sturgeon 
of 20 poods (720 pounds) yields 5 poods (180 pounds) of balyk; a very large sdvriouga, 15 pounds; 
a common-sized scvriouga, 4 pounds; and the couimon sturgeon, from 8 to 12 pounds. 

DRIED TREPANGS. 

The preparation for market of the soft echinoderm variously designated as sea- 
cucumber, sea-slug, beche de mer, trepang, etc., was once attempted on the Florida 
coast. The trepang is a very popular food product in oriental countries, esteemed 
not only by tlie natives, but by foreigners residing in those countries. China imports 
annually about 5,000,(l(Mt pounds, at an average valuation of 20 cents per pound, from 
the South Pacific Islands and Japan, where the holothurian is very abundant. In 
preparing trepangs for market, they are boiled iu water for from 10 to 30 minutes, 
according to varieties and sizes, split down on the side, eviscerated, ami then exposi'il 
to the sun until perfectly cured. In some countries, as iu Malay Islands, they aif 
dried over a wood fire, but this product is less desirable than if dried in the sun. It 
is important that they be kept dry until they reach the coTisuuiers, otherwise they 
become flaccid and decay. 

Mr. Silas Stearns described the fishery attemi>ted on the Florida coast as follows : 

In 1871 an Englishman came to Key West, Fla., for the purpose of gatlaring and preparing ti'c- 
pang for the Cliinese market. He erected a shed, under which were built fireplaces, witli large kettles 
and otlier arrangements, and also frames for drying. He arranged with the fisliermen, and fishermen's 
boys particularly, to bring him all the sea-slugs they could obtain, for whicli he was to pay a certain 
price. As the slugs were very abundant ou the shoals about Key West, and the pi ices paid for them 



PUESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 419 

were lilieral, no froiilile wiis exporii'iii-i'd in nlitniiiing laif;;e supplies. The sea-sliigs, still ali^e and 
fresli, were thrown into tlie kettles ;in<l Imileil :i <-ertain IcMigtli of time, hnt as to the composition of 
the liquid in which they weri5 cooked, my intormaut could not tell me. Then they were taken out, 
the outer rough skin rubbed oft', and the body split with a knife, after which tlie intestines were 
removed and tln^ body spread on canvas in the sun to dry. The next oiioratiou alter drying, and the 
final one, w:is to smoke them. This was done in a smokeliouse of the ordinary kind, in which they 
were suspended on slats. After the final process the trepang were packed in bales, covered with 
s.icking, and shipped to New York, where they^were probably resbipped to China. For two seasons 
(winters) this industry was kept up, and apparently with much success; but at the close of the 
second season the houses and apparatus were sold, and the operator left Key West. Since then 
nothing further has been attempted in the trepang industry there.* 

Trepangf^ are abiiiidant on several other portioii.s of the United States coast, and 
especially so on the northwest coast and among the Alexander Islands, and there 
seems no reason why these supplies should not be utilized and an industry of consid- 
erable importance developed. 

The following description of the method of curing trepangs among the Bast 
Indies is from The Commercial Products of the Sea, by P. L. Simmonds: 

The first thing to be done on arrival at an island where the slug is plentiful is to erect on shore 
a large curing-house about 90 feet in length, 30 feet in breadth, and about 10 feet high. These houses 
are generally built of island materials and thatched with mats of cocoanut leaves; this thatch must 
be well put on, so as to prevent the rain from penetrating. The sides are likewise covered with those 
mats, and a small door should be left in each end. Platforms for drying the slugs are then erected 
along one side of the house. They should run the whole length and bo about 8 feet in breadth, 
the lower one about breast-high from the ground, and the upper 3 feet above that. The frames are 
generally made of cocoanut trees and covere 1 with two or three layers of si>lit bamboo or reeds, sized 
close so as to form a sort of network for the slugs to lie on. Much care and skill is required in the 
construction of these platforms, so as to prevent the biche do mer from burning. A trench about 6 
feet in breadth and 2 feet in depth is then dug the whole length of the platforms for the fires. Tubs 
filled with salt water are placed at short distances along the side of the trench and a supply of buckets 
kept in readiness to prevent tlie fires from blazing up and burning the fish or platforms, as well as to 
regulate the degree of heat necessary for drying the slugs. 

The process of curing is this: The b&che de mer is first gutted, then boiled in large pots, and, 
after being well washed in fresh water, carried into the curing-house in small tubs or baskets and 
emptied on the lower platform, where it is spread out (about .^i inches thick) to dry. The trench is 
then filled with firewood, and when the platform is full of trepang the fires are lighted and the drying 
process commences. From this time the fires must be kept constantly going day and night, with a 
regular watch to attend to them. On the afternoon of the following day tlie fires are extinguished for 
a short time and the slugs shifted to the upper platform, having been first examined, and splints of 
wood put into those which may not be drying proj)erly. Wh('n Ihis is done, the lower platform is 
again filled from the pots, the fires immediately lighti'd, ami the drying process continued as before. 
The slugs (m the lower })latlbrm must be turned frequently during the first V2 hours. On the second 
day (the fires having been extinguished as l)efore) the slugs on the upper platform are shifted close 
over to one end to make room for those m\ the loner platform again, and so on as before for the two 
following days, by which time the first day's produce will be properly cured. It is then taken ofi' the 
jilatform, and, after having been carefully examined, and those not dry put uji again, the quantity 
cured is sent on board the vessel and stowed away in bags. Hut should the ship be long in procuring 
a cargo it will require to be dried over again every three months in the sun, on platforms erected 
over the deck, as it soon gets damp, unless when packed in air tight casks. 

If the bi'cho de mer is plentiful and the natives bring it daily in large quantities, 40 men will 
be requisite to perform the work of a house of the above size, and the pots will want two hands to 
attend them. These curing-bouses consume a large (juautity of firewood daily. When beche de mer 
is cured and stowed away great care should be taken to prevent it from getting wet, as one damp 
slug will speedily spoil a whole bag. 



' Fishery Industries of the United States, sec. v, vol. 2, pp. 815-816. 



420 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

It appears that tlieru are two ways of lioiling biche do nier, equally good. Tlio lirst is to take 
thom out when boili^d about a minute, or as soon as they shrink and ferl hard; the othi^r method is 
to boil them for 10 to 1") minutes; but in boiling either way the slugs ought, if properly cooked, tu dry 
like a boiled egg immediately on being taken out of the pot. Bi'che de mer dried in the sun fetches 
a bigher price than that dried over a wood tire. Bnt this method would not answer in curing a ship's 
cargo, as they take fully 20 days to dry, whereas by smoking them they arc well cured in 4 days. 
Much skill is required in drying bil'che de mer, as well as in boiling it, as too much heat will cause 
it to blister and get porous like sponge, whereas too little heat again will make it spoil and get putrid 
within 24 hours alter being boiled. There is, likewise, great care and method reiiuisite iu conducting 
the gutting, for if this be not jjroperly attended to by keeping the lish in warm water and from 
exposure to the sun it will, when raw, soon subside into a blubbery mass and become putrid in a few 
hours after being caught. 

DRYING FISH BY ARTIFICIAL MEANS. 

A number of devices have been invented for drying fish by artificial means, by 
the use of heat, dry air, absorption pads, etc., but none have come into practical use 
on a large scale. In 1878 there was introduced a diier,* consisting of one or more 
horizontally revolving wheel-like tables, having two outer rings with a bottom of 
network on which to place the fish and a corresponding covering of network to overlie 
and retain the fish during the rotation of tlie table. The tables are in sectional form 
to admit of the fish being removed from any portion without disturbing that in any 
other portion; the whole is supported by converging arms radiating from a v^ertical 
spindle. After the fish are placed within the network frame the structure is rotated 
at a speed to be regulated by circumstances, thus creating a current of air, causing a 
rapid drying of the fish. 

A system modeled somewhat on that used in fruit-driers was introduced in 1877.t 
The fish are dressed and placed in a tight vessel on a false perforated bottom a few 
inches above the real bottom. Steam is admitted and the fish cooked until freed from 
the bones. The flesh is then spread on hurdles, which are introduced successively 
into a chamber, into the lowest part of which is admitted a current of air heated to 
about 200'^. After the first has been exposed to this temperature about 10 minutes, 
it is moved up about i inches and a second introduced, and so on successively until 
there are 10 or 12 hurdles in the chamber, and thereafter as each additional hurdle 
is placed at the bottom the top one is removed. 

During this operation the moisture eva[)orating from the fish forms a vapor which 
fills the drying chamber, thus'keeping the fish in a humid atmosphere and preventing 
it from becoming suddenly dry and hard on its surface, and the texture is kept loose 
to aUow the water to evaporate freely. 

This process did not prove a success, and in 1880 Mr. Alden, the patentee of the 
above, introduced an improveil method, as follows: 

Take fresh fish and remove the heads, tails, fins, entrails, and skins, and also the larger bones, 
leaving the clear fresh fish meat, which should be cut in pieces of suitable size, thoroughly cleansed 
in pure cold water, and then placed iu an evaporating |)an i>Iaced upon and surrounded by a heating 
coil or a steam jacket, and having one or more movable blades revolving around on the inside of the 
pan, so arranged that when in motion the blades will operate upon the principle of the jdow, so as to 
avoid shovingthe mass while throwing a furrow in such manner that the fresh fish meat is preventeil 
from adhering to the bottom or the sides of the pan, and is kept constantly in a revolving motion, so 
as to admit free access of the drying atmosphere for rapidly removing the vaporized moisture, in aid 

* See United States Letters Patent, No. 207913. t See Letters Patent, No. 186893. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 421 

of which .1 fail or vacuum cluimber may be used, and the mechanism may lie operated by steam or 
other power. When the evaporated fresh fish meat has been placed in the evaporating pan, steam is 
applied to tlie heating coils or steam jacket, and the revolving blades are imniediati^ly set in motion, 
the operation or effect of which is within a few minutes to dissolve the lish ment into a jelly-like mass, 
in which condition, when kept in motion, it soon loses all its free moisture, rapidly disintegrates, and 
becomes dry ^Jr soliililied fresh fish libril, having much the appearance of fine broken vermicelli. 
Under this method the lish tiliril separates and entirely frees itself from the minute or smaller bones, 
so that they may readily be removed. The fresh fish fibril slionld be kept in rapid motion until suffi- 
ciently dry to remove from the pan (which is determined by its failure longer to throw off vapor), 
when it sliould lie spread upon cooling screens or muslin until cold, when it may be packed in tin, 
wood, or paper boxes for kee]iiug or for transportation. Under this process the time required is from 
thirty to forty minutes, and the temperature must be kept below the cooking point, so as to prevent 
coagulation of the fish gelatine, and the product, or fresh fish fibril, will, in proportion by weight, be 
as 1 pound to 10 pounds of live fish, and .5 pounds of prepared fresh fish meat. The greatest possilile 
celerity should be had and care taken that the prepared fresh fish meat is entirely fresh, pure, and 
without taint. Fresh fish put np after evaporating its free moisture and being fibrilized in the 
manner described retains its entire nutriment and flavor, is free from all foreign and injurious sub- 
stances, contains no salt, has no affinity for moisture, and will keep in any climate for a long time. 

A plant was e.stablislied at Gioucester, Mass., in 1881, for the preparation of Alileii's 
specialty, but it did uot compete successfully with the boneless codfish, then being 
preiiared iu such large quantities at that port. 

By 11 process designed in 1879 by Mr. J. M. Reid,* of Canada, fish previously brine- 
salted arc jiiaced iu a tight receiver and subjected for a time to compressed heated 
air for the |iuri)ose of extracting the moisture. 

Another method that ])roiiiised success was put in operation at Gloucester iu the 
spring of ISS.i, it being the invention of Halifax parties.! Two apartmeuts were fitted 
«!> with fiakcs, the floors being partly open to allow the air to circulate. By means 
of ])iston blowers, or of fans operated by steam power, the external air was drawn iu 
from one side of the building and forced over the fish and out on the other side, when 
the atmosphere was in suitable condition for drying. But when it was loaded with 
moisture both the inlet and outlet connecting the room with the outside air were 
closed and communication opened with a cooling room overhead, the temperature of 
which was lowered by cakes of ice, and the air contained in the drying and cooling 
rooms was forced over the fish, thence through the cooling room, and back again over 
the fish and so on, continually keeping the fish cool. The inventor claimed that the 
fish were brighter and contained less dirt and dust than those dried on flakes, but the 
expense of the process was considerable and consequently it was soon abandoned. 

In 1890 Mr. Gathcart Thompson, of Halifax, brought to notice a process by which 
he claimed that codfish can be dried by absorbent pads, thereby obviating the dangers 
and delays of the present method. This process was originally as follows: 

A layer of greeu-salted fiab is spread evenly on an absorbing pad. Common gunny cloth makes a 
good, cheap, and effective one. Another pad is laid over this, succeeded by another layer of fish, followed 
again by a pad, anil so on successively until the whole (luantity of fish is spread, a pad being placed 
over the last layer. A platform of boards is then laid on this, and weights or other appliances are 
used to cause a slight, continuous, and uniform pressure. The pile is allowed to remain from 24 to 48 
hours, during which time the pads become saturated with moisture, which they have extracted from 
the fish. Repiling then takes place, dry pads being substituted for the wet ones, the latter being 
dried for further use. Repiling with the sulistitution of dry pads is continued till the fish have 
become sufficiently dry, a week or ten days being long enough to effect this object if intended for the 
home or West Indian market. For more distant markets a somewhat longer period would be required. 

• Letters Patent No. 221357. t See Letters Patent No. 250382, dated December 6, 1881. 



422 



BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATRS FISH COMMISSION. 



In 1892 Mr. Tli()iiii)soii introduced tlie lollowiiig iinprovciiicnt on liis method: 

A nuiiilicf of lijilit frames of 2 by 11 inch lumber, fi feet in length and 3 feet in width, are 
constructed. One of the.so is laid upon the Hoor and a layer of dry moss and sawdust is spread 
thereon. Tliis is covered with a sheet of cotton cloth large enough to envelop the frame, a layer of 
tish is .spread flesh down thereon, and the whole is covered by another sheet of cotton. A second 
frame is placed over the first one and the .same processs is continued till a height of 3 or 4 feet is 
attained, then a thick layer of moss or sawdust is placed over the Last tier of lish and a cover of boards 
sutticiently large to go in.sidc the frame is laid over all. Pressure is then ap]died, by screw or lever, 
to thoroughly enibe<l the fisli in the absorbent. The spreading of the moss and sawdust over the 
layer of fish fills up the interstices between them and brings every part in contact with the .absorbent, 
and at the same time prevents the fish from being pressed out of shape. 

Ill tlie tweiity-fiftli aiiiiual report of the Canadian Department of Marine and 
Fi.slieries the folh)wing aci-ount of the above-described pioce.ss i.s given: 

A ciuautity of 200 pouuds of cleaned fish, put under Thompson's process, gave the following 
weights: 



Duration of test. 


Weight. 


Percentage 
of loss. 




Pounds. 
170 
155 
144 
134 
128 


15 

22i 

28 

33 

36 








After 312 hours pressure 





Thus, 200 pounds of cleaned fish, after a pressure of 312 hours, is reduced to 128 pounds, 36 per 
cent moisture being extracted. This seems suflScient to establish the fact that in this way enough 
moisture can be extracted by simple and cheap means to secure the fish against damage at times whcu 
drying under the ordinary process would be impossible. This method could be employed with great 
advantage by fishermen at the places of catch, as the moisture could be removed from the fish con- 
tinuously aud quite independent of weather. Tliey could then be placed in piles, and the first fine 
day takeu .advantage of for final drying. For fish which have been cured lij' .Mr. Thomp.son's experi- 
ment, six hours in the son should suffice for he United .States market, and from 24 to 48 hours to 
render them suitable for the Brazil markets, where hard and very dry fish are reciuired. Mr. Thompson 
intends to continue his experiments on a larger scale, to enable him to make the final test of sales in 
foreign markets, whcu a further report will be made, and, if successful, a bulletin will be issued by 
this department. The ditl'erent experiments were inspected by experienced fish-merchants, who have 
certified that in their opiuiou the extraction of 30 per cent will secure the fish from damage until 
suitable weather ofiers for their final drying by exposure to sun aud air — for the removal of the remain- 
ing 10 per cent to 15 per cent. This they consider would not require more than from 6 to 48 hours of 
good drying weather, according to the market for which the fish are intended. 

Mr. Thoma.s S. Whitman, of Annapolis, Nova Scotia, obtained letters patent on 
May 10, 1892, in the Dominion of Canada, and on the l.'>tli of February, 1894, in the 
United States, for an improved proccs.s of curing and drying cod by exposing the fish 
alternately to artificial heat and to currents of fresh, cool air. The inventor claims 
that by his process fisli can be cured much quicker than by the present system and 
without any of its injurious effects, and that the exact (juantity of moisture desired 
can also be removed from the fish, so as to suit the taste of consumers in diflercnt 
countries. 

The following description applies to Mr. Whitman's process: 

The wet-salted fish are taken from the kench and washed, after which the surface water and 
pickle is pressed out of the fish by steam press or otherwise. After having been in press for a few 
hours the fish are ready to be spread on the wire flakes or trays that are placed in rows about 9 



PRESERVATION OP FIRHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 423 

inches apart, tbo rows of llakos or trays being contiiined in compartments that are traversed by pipes 
in wbiili steam or hot water is ]ieriiiitted to liicnlate. The maxiiuuni temperature which the steam 
or hot water in the pipes should iiiijiart to the compartments is about !t5' F. 

The lish having been spread npou the trays or HaUes in tlie compartments are allowed to remain 
in a temperature of !iO to 95 degrees for a lew hours, until they are thoroughly warmed, whereupon 
currents of cool, diy air ari^ forced over and under the lish on these hakes or trays. These currents of 
dry air come from i hannels or Hues that open into the compartments. Hy opening and closing these 
cold dry-air Hues at ))roper intervals of, say. two or three hours, thus alternately cooling and heating 
the lish, from 1 to 2 per cent of moisture per hour is taken from the tish. The products of evaporation 
are carried off from the comiiartments by flues running to a chimney, or suitable ventilators may be 
placed in the tops of the compartments fiT carrying oft' the moisture to the roof of the building, or 
otherwise. It will be perceived that if the heating process were carried on by itself continuously 
instead of interruptedly, the atmosphere surrounding the fish would soon lie charged with moisture 
to such an extent as to prevent :iuy further evaporations, and the fish, too, would be injured by being 
warmed for too long a time or too thoroughly. The currents of fresh air which alternate with the 
heating process describi^d serve to bring down the temperature of the fish and also to carry oH' the 
moisture-laden atmosphere which surrounds the fish, bringing into action fresh air which is readv to 
be charged with new moisture carried away from the fish by the next heating process. 

The following account of the application of the Whitman process to curing cod- 
fish is abridged from a report made by the owners of the patent in the United States: 

The first apparatus for practical working of the Whitman process was put up by the patentee at 
Annapolis, Nova Scotia, in a building 40 by 80 feet of 2i stories. This fish-drying establishment 
has been in constant active operation for four years, and has turned out from thd green and kench- 
salted fish about 10,000 to 1.5,0(10 (juintals of dry fish annually for export to West Indies, Central and 
.South America, and long-voyage tropical fish markets with very profitable results, giving employment 
to large numbers of men .lud fishermen, causing a large increase in Bay of Fundy hake and haddock 
lishiug, and a steady advance in prices, till now these fish are actually commanding higher prices at 
the Bay of Fundy ports of Nova Scotia than the hake taken by United States fishermen off the New 
Kngland coast are selling at in Gloucester or Boston; all this being the result of drying the fish 
suitably for tropical markets, which it has been found impossible to do in the ordinary way by the 
sun, owing to the humidity of the atmosphere and prevalence of fogs on the Nova Scotia and New 
Mngland coasts. The same successful results have followed with all the fish-driers Mr. Whitman 
lias had erected for his own account or for others at Halifax, Nova Scotia. 

At St. Johns, N(^wfoundlaud, for Messrs. Bowring Bros., and for Messrs. Job Bros. & Co., two of 
the largest fish-exporting firms in America, these drying establishments have been in active operation 
almost constantly, night au<l day, since erected, about three years ago, and Messrs. Bowring Bros, have 
purchased Mr. Whitman's patent right for the island of Newfoundland and dependencies of Labrador. 

At St. Pierre, Minuelou, under Mr. Whitman's French patent in 1897, he erected a drier for 
Messrs. Beust & fils, of Granville, France, who have a large fish establishment at St. Pierre and a fieet 
of vessels employed in fishing on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. This drier they operate on a 
royalty, and have m.ade a good success of it, drying fi.sh for export to Madagascar and other French 
colonies in tropical countries, which it was impossible to do on the Newfonn<lland coast in open air, 
owing to humid climate and fog. At Paspibeac, Quebec, Canada, Mr. Whitman erected for Messrs. 
Charles Robin. Collas & Co., Ltd., an extensive drier, costing $5,000, which h.as been most successfully 
ojierated for two years past by Charles Robin, Collas & Co., who, only two months after they had 
commenced operations, bought of Mr. Whitman the patent rights for the Province of Quebec and 
Bale de Chaleur coast and paid £1,000 in cash. 

A small drier was erected at Halifax, in 1896, for Messrs. Geo. E. Boake & Co., especially to dry fish 
for their Jamaica trade, which has been in constant use over two years and proved a great success 
in saving of time and labor. At Halifax Mr. Whitman erected, in 1895, a large drier building, GO by 
I'iO feet, which has been in very successful operation ever since, and has enabled his company to open 
up large and profitable fish markets in Central and South America, formerly largely controlled by 
Norwegian fish-dealers. Mr. Whitman is now erecting a fish-drier at Gloucester for Messrs. John 
Pew & Son, and is about to organize a joint-stock company to operate a large drier at Boston, not only 
to dry fish for the cutting and other branches of the domestic trade, but for export fish trade. 



424 BULLETIN OV THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

A correspondent writes as follows iu the Yarmouth Herald of July 18, 1893, 
respecting the success of Mr. Whitmau's tish-drying apparatus at Halifax: 

Within till' last few days I have bad tbe privilege of visiting the extensivf new fish-iliying appa- 
ratus that has been jiut in operation in this city (Halifax) by the inventor, Mr. Thomas S. Whitman, 
of Annapolis. The bnildiug containing tbe apparatus and storage rooms has been constructed and 
completed and operations have commenced witbiu the last month. It is a very large building, 50 by 
120 feet, and is situated on Liverpool wharf, where there is ample wharfage, and where a large amount 
of fish can be taken cai'e of. Entering the building a very busy scene meets the eye; thousands of 
quintals of fish are seen in the various processes of washing, drying, and x>acking for the largest fish 
markets in the world. I was particularly struck with the rapidity of the operation. Mr. Whitman 
buys all the green-salted fish that otters; by his jirocess they are dried perfectly in 48 bonis, and are 
ready to ship in less than a week from keucbing. It is certainly a new departure in tbe handling and 
curing offish. The uew system invented and introduced by Mr. Whitman is a perfect drier, and at 
the same time tbe fish are so kept apart from each other during tbe entire process of drying that they 
are also kept cool, the atmosphere by which they are dried being of about tbe same temperature 
required in the natural .system of drying. It is astonishing to note the vast quantities of fish that can 
bo cured in a short time; several thousand quint.als per week is the capacity of this large concern, 
and it is certainly a busy hive of industry, one of the busiest in the provinces. To-day your corre- 
spondent was shown about 8,(X10 quintals of fish that were being dried, and most of theui were in the 
sea only a short time ago, and before the week closes they will be shipped in perfect order to the fish 
markets of tbe West Indies. Considering tbe large amount of foggy, wet weather that the people of 
the western counties generally have to meet during their fish-drying .season, it would evidently be to 
the advantage of our largest fish-packers if they were to adopt tbe methods now used and invented by 
Mr. Whitman, for it is evident that a vast amount of time is thus saved in the curing of fisb, while tbe 
nuiformity of the curing is maintained throughout, every fish appe.aring in perfect order as a result of 
this process. As I stated before, it only reciuired 48 hours to thoroughly dry the fish, and they are 
then ready for shipment to any part of the world. 

It is estimated that the cost of drying codfish by the Whitman process from the 
water-horse to the finished product is about 30 or 35 cents per 112 pounds for fish 
suitable for the West India trade, this covering two dryings of 21 hours each and a 
sweating of 10 to 12 days. In jjieparing fish for Central America or northern Brazil, 
2i days' drying is necessary, and the cost approximates 40 or 45 cents, while for 
southern Brazil the fish must be dried for 3 days by the Whitman process, and the 
cost is about 45 or 50 cents per (juintal of 112 pounds. 

A number of other processes of prtiticial drying have been devised, but none of 
them have been adopted to any extent by the trade. 



PKESERVATION OF KISUEKY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 425 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS BY PICKLING. 



Pickling foods consists in their preservation and subsequent retention in some 
antiseptic flavoring solution, such as brine, vinegar, etc. Brine made of common salt 
is used almost exclusively iu pickling tish, while for mollusks, crustaceans, and a few 
preparations of flsh, vinegar with certain spices added is generally employed ; but 
pickling with vinegar is of small imi)ortauce compared with brine-salting. 

A variety of flavoring solutions used for pickling in foreign countries are com- 
paratively unknown iu the United States. In Japan small flsh are frequently boiled 
and placed in shoyu or soja, a sauce made from fermented wheat, beans, and salt. In 
the same country salmon, cuttletish, etc., are frequently slightly salted and then boiled 
and placed in a tight package with rice partly fermented, the development of the 
ferment being checked by the removal of moisture. The rice, taking moisture from the 
fish, begins again to ferment and the flsh imbibes products of the fermentation, such 
as dextrine, sugar, and alcohol, and is thereby very delicately flavored. 

A number of other antiseptics have been introduced for the purpose of preserving 
food products, among which are boracic acid, salicylic acid, etc., but as these do not 
flavor the product, and as they are not generally employed as a solution, their use is 
not considered as pickling. A discussion of them is therefore reserved for the last 
chapter of this report, the present chapter dealing with methods of pickling with 
brine and vinegar. 

DEVELOPMENT AND METHODS OF BRINE-SALTING. 

The origin of pickling fish with salt is of somewhat uncertain date. It was known 
to the Phceniciaus on the Spanish coast, and was employed by the Greeks to some 
extent, and the Romans carried it to a high degree of ])erfection, especially in preserv 
ing swordfish from Sicily, tunny from Byzantium and Cadiz, mackerel from Spain, 
and mullet from Exone. Brine-salting received its greatest development during the 
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries at the hands of the Dutch in preserving herring 
caught in the North Sea, and since that time it has become one of the most important 
methods of preserving fish. Its principal application in the United States is in the 
preservation of mackerel, herring, alewives, salmon, mullet, cod, lake trout, whiteflsh, 
bluefish, shad, etc. It is also used in preserving certain miscellaneous products, as 
cod tongues, halibut fins, sturgeon eggs, mullet eggs, etc. 

The general method of brine-salting is to dress the fish and place them with salt 
iu tight vats or barrels, the salt uniting with the moisture in the fish forming a pickle, 
in which they remain for a few days until cured, after which they are usually removed 
and idaced iu market packages with new brine. But tliere are many exceptions to 
this practice, depending on the species of flsh and the markets for which they are 
intended. Some fish, sea herring and river herring, for instance, are usually not 
dressed at all, being brine-salted iu the natural or round condition. Others are 
gibbed, or split to the vent and eviscerated. But most pickled fish are split either 
on the back or the belly from the head to the tail, so as to lay out flat; some have 
the heads removed, and a few have a large portion of the backbone cut out. 



426 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

However they may be dressed, it is importaut tluit the tish be salted as soou as 
practicable after removal from the water — in the uieantiiiie being protected from the 
snii, from bruising, etc. In case the fish have been dressed they are usually washed 
and soaked to remove all the blood. In salting, the lish are placed in tlie barrels or 
butts, with dry salt sprinkled among them, the quantity used ranging from 20 to 25 
pounds to 100 pounds offish. On the New England coast Trapani salt is generally 
used, except in the case of mackerel and one or two other species, for which Liverpool 
salt is preferred. On the Great Lakes, Syracuse and Warsaw salts are preferred, 
but the other kinds are used to some extent. Along the Middle and South Atlantic 
coast Liverpool salt is usually employed. The dry salt unites with the moisture in 
the flsh, making a pickle which soon strikes through the flsh. If thin, dry fish are 
being cured, it is sometimes well to add strong brine to aid in forming the pickle. 

After a time, averaging for most species about a week or ten days, the fish are 
cured, and should then be placed in packages suitable for the market with additional 
salt sprinkled among the fish, and the package completely filled with strong brine. 
The principal difficulty encountered is the liability of the fish to rust; but by using 
strong pickle and tight barrels, so that the fish are covered with pickle all the time, 
this tendency may be easily overcome except during very warm weather. 

The quantity of salt used in pickling fish varies according to the size and condi- 
tion of the species handled, and experience and knowledge of the particular market 
for which they are intended are the best guides in every instance. A mild-cured tish 
is preferred to one heavily salted; but if too little salt is used the jiickle is likely to 
slime or sonr and the fish become rusty. It is therefore usually desirable to err on 
the side of too much salt rather than too little. Occasionally, to insure perfect pres- 
ervation, it is necessary to use so much that the flavor of delicate species is more or 
less injured. Sugar is sometimes employed to modify the action of the salt and to 
improve the flavor of the articles pickled when it is not desired to keep the product 
for a considerable length of time, as in case of pickling salmon. But the use of sugar 
is sometimes attended with fermentation unless the pickled products be kept at a low 
temperature; and glucose is now sometimes substituted. The fl.sli are first struck in 
salt and then packed in a suitable receptacle with a solution composed of about 3 
pounds of glucose, 10 pounds of salt, and 5 gallons of water, the glucose being 
dissolved in the water before the salt is added. 

Pickled fish are i)lace(l in a great variety of packages adapted to the trade for 
which they are intended and ranging in capacity from tierces, each containing 300 
pounds, to small kegs containing oidy a pound. Mackerel, sea herring, salmon, cod, 
and the like, are mostly put up in whole barrels of 200 pounds net capacity. River 
herring or alewives are generally placed in lOO-pound barrels, while the bulk of mullet, 
lake herring, whiteflsh, trout, and other lake species are usually packed in half-barrels 
of 100 pounds capacity. Most of these species, however, are also placed in packages 
varying from 50 pounds to 10 pounds, suitable for the various requirements of the 
retail trade, each package being branded with the weight of the fish therein. 

Carefulness in the selection of the packages is of great importance. Those used 
on the New England coast are manufactured mostly in Maine, Bangor being the 
center of the industry, and the 100-pound barrels or half-barrels used on the Great 
Lakes are made principally at Sandusky; but while the products of those two cities 
arc the standards, many fish barrels are made at various otlier points. Wood which 
imparts a peculiar flavor to the fish should not be used for making the barrels, unless 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 427 

for preparing fish for those markets which exhibit a preference for fish having such a 
flavor. The staves and lieads may be of white piiie, white or red oak, spruce, poplar, 
or chestnut, and they are sent to the lishiug ports either ready for use or, to economize 
freight, in shooks ready to be put together. The Bangor barrel has staves 28 inches 
in length and the heads 17 inches between the chimes, and is bound with 3 hoops on 
each bilge and the same number on each chime. In packing valuable fish, such as 
mackerel, much stouter barrels are necessary than when packing herring, for instance. 
The average cost of the Bangor barrel used in the mackerel trade approximates 55 
cents, and the Sandusky barrel coats about 50 cents. 

REGULATIONS RESPECTING BRINE-SALTING FISH. 

With a view to maintaining the reputation of the output, and incidentally to pre- 
venting fraud on the consumers, statutes affecting the packing of l)rine-salted lish 
have been enacted in several of the States, especially in Maine, New Hampshire, 
Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, North 
Carolina, and Ohio. The pickling of mackerel is regulated in Maine, New Hampshire, 
Massachusetts, and Rhode Island. The laws of Connecticut attempt to regulate the 
pickling of shad. In Ohio it is required that all iJickled flsh be inspected except 
herring, mackerel, and shad; also in Chicago and some other large cities there are 
municipal regulations relative to the same matter. Few of the State or municipal 
reguliitions are strictly enforced; and since there are no national laws protecting 
inspected flsh after leaving the jurisdiction of the State where packed, it frequently 
happens that fish inspected and uniformly graded according to the regulations of the 
State where prepared are repacked in other States and sold with short weights and 
under wrong grades, low-grade fish being sold for choice ones, short fish for li)ng, and 
even herring for mackerel, much to the injury of the trade. Tliere is nothing to prevent 
mackerel, for instance, which has been pickled and inspected in accordance with the 
regulations of Maine or Massachusetts, from being repacked and sold under false brands. 

A barrel of fish signifies 200 pounds of fish exclusive of pickle, but without proper 
iusiiection many dealers are disposed to place less than that weight of fish, adding brine 
to keep the gross weight of the barrel's contents the same. The faulty grading of fish 
IS much more frequently practiced, fish improperly cured or those of small size being- 
branded higher than the quality or size warrants. This is the principal reason why 
so large a iiroportion of the pickled herring sold in this country are of foreign 
importation; many dealers preferring to handle those cured and packed under careful 
foreign inspection, even though the cost be nearly twice as great, since the brand 
indicates exactly what they are buying. 

Inspection regulations are of very early origin, those in Massachusetts dating 
from 1651. They generally i)rovide for inspectors, who are appointed by the governor 
or chosen by the towns in which they are to serve. There was an inspector-general in 
Maine prior to 1875, but the office was abolished that year, and at ])resent the governor 
is lecjuired to "appoint, in i)laces where pickled fish are cured or ])acked for exporta 
tion, one or more persons, skilled in the quality of the same, to be inspectors of fish, 
who shall hold their office for a term of five years, unless sooner removed by the gov- 
ernor and council." 

The regulation in New Hampshire respecting the appointment of inspectors is 
almost identical with that of Massachusetts. The inspector general is appointed 
by the governor, with the advice and consent of the council, fur the term of Ave 



428 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

years, unless sooner removed. He may appoiut deputy inspectors, removable at his 
pleasure, in every town wliere fish are i)acked for exportation. 

In llhode Island "the electors in each town shall, annually, on their town election 
days, choose and elect » * * one or more i)ackers of fish." 

In (Jonueeticut "the superior court in the several counties may appoint in each 
town therein not exceeding 15 insijectors and packers of fish." 

In each of these States the inspectors are required to give a bond for the faithful 
peiformance of their duties, the amount of the bond ranging from .$1(»,000, in case of 
the inspector-general of Massachusetts, to .$100 for the local inspectors in Connecticut. 
Their duties consist generally in inspecting and branding the fish salted under their 
supervision, and the fees are: Tn Maine, 7 cents per barrel; in New Hampshire and Mas- 
sachusetts, 9 cents, of whicli 1 cent per barrel goes to the inspector-general. In l\hode 
Island "the packers [inspectors] of fish shall be paid for opening, assorting, inspecting, 
weighing, pickling, packing or repacking, heading up, nailing, and giving a certificate, 
if pickled codfish or mackerel, 20 cents for every barrel, and 15 cents for every half- 
barrel * * * ; and for all other, except codfish and mackerel, * * * 25 cents 
for every cask." The Connecticut insjjectors receive " for packing, heading, plugging, 
pickling, and branding each barrel of fish 20 cents, and for each half barrel 10 cents." 

While the foregoing are the fees fixed by law, yet generally, as there is no limit 
to the number of inspectors, each packing house has one as a member of the firm or 
employed in some capacity, so that the local fees are rarely paid. 

The inspection in Maine is made under the following provisions: 

Every inspector who inspects any kind of lish tliat are split or pickled for packing, shall see that 
they are in the first instance free from taint, rust, or damage, and well struck with salt or ]iickle; and 
such of said fish as are in good order and of good quality shall be pickled in tierces, barrels, half- 
barrels, (luarter-barrels, and tenths of barrels, or kits; each tierce containing 300 pounds, each barrel 
200 pounds, and so on in that proportion; and the same Khali be packed in good clean coarse salt, 
snflicient for their preservation; and then each Ciisk shall be headed ui) and filled with clear, strong 
pickle, and shall be branded by the inspector with the name and quality of the fish therein. Mackerel 
of the best ijuality, not mutilated, measuring, when split, not less than 18 inches from the extremity 
of the head to the crotch or fork of the tail, free from taint, rust, or damage, shall be branded 
"number one"; the next best quality, l)eing not less than 11 inches, measuring as aforesaid, free from 
taint, rust, or dam.age, shall be branded "number two''; those that remain after the above selection, 
free from taint or damage, and not less than 13 inches, measuring as aforesaid, shall be branded "num- 
ber three, large" ; those of the next inferior ((uality, free from taint or damage, not less than 10 inches, 
measured as aforesaid, shall be branded "number three"; all other mackerel, free from taint or 
d.amage, shall be branded "number three, small." The inspector shall brand, in plain letters, on the head 
of every such cask, the weight, the initials of his Christian name, the whole of his surname, the name of 
his town, and the letters "Me." au abridgment of the mouth and the year, in figures, when packed. 

Every inspector who inspects pickled .alewives or herring, packed whole or round, shall see that 
they are struck with salt or pickle, and then put in good casks of the size and material afuresaid, 
packed closely therein and well salted, and the casks filled with lish and salt, putting no more salt with 
the fish than is necessary for their preservation ; and the inspector shall brand all such crsks with the 
name of the inspected fish as aforesaid, but in no case shall the inspector brand the casks unless the fish 
contained therein shall have been packed and prepared under his immediate supervision. 

All ti(^rces, barrels, and casks which are used fen' the purpose of packing pickled fish shall be 
made of sound, well-seasoned white oak, white ash, spruce, pine, chestnut, or po]>lar staves, with 
heading of either of such kinds of wood, sound, well planed and seasoned, and when of pine to be 
free of saj), and the barrels to be hooped with at least three strong hoops on each bilge and three also 
on each chime; the barrel staves to be 28 inches in length, and the he.ads to be 17 inches between the 
chimes, .and made in a workmanlike manner to hold pickle. 

If any person takes from a cask any fish pickleil, cured, lawfully inspected and branded, and 
substitutes therefor or fraudulently intermixes other fish ; or any insivector marks any cask out of his 
town, or which he has not inspected, packed, and prepared himself aecoriling to law; permits other 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS F<1K FOOD. 429 

persons unlawfully to use Lis brands, or willfully and fraudulently uses the same himself after the 
expiration of his commissiou, he shall forfeit $20 for each cask or box so dealt with. 

If any person lades or receives on hoard any vessel or other carriage, for any transportation from 
this State, any pickled fish, or cured or salted whole fish, packed or not packed, not inspected and 
branded as aforesaid, except such as is described in the exception of section 13, he shall forfeit at the 
rate of not less than $5 nor more than $10 for every 100 pounds thereof; and any justice of the peace 
may issue his warrant to the proper officer, directing hira to seize and secure any such prohibited fish 
and convey it to any inspector within a convenient distance for inspection; and every person refusing 
to give necessary aid in the service of such warrant, when reijuired liy the officer, shall forfeit $5 to the 
person suingtherefor in an action of debt; and such inspector shall open, inspect, jiack, and brand such 
fish according to law and detain the same till all lawful charges of seizure and inspection are paid. 

The flsh iiLspectiou laws of New Hampshire follow very closely tliose of Maine. 
The inspection laws of Massachusetts date from 1651, but have been modified from 
time to time. The following are among the principal provisions at present: 

Under the supervision of the inspector-general and his deputies, respectively, all kinds of split 
pickled fish and lish for barreling except herrings, and all codfish tongues and sounds, halibut fins 
and napes, and swordfish, whenever said articles are intended for exportation, shall be struck with 
salt or pickle in the first instance, and preserved sweet and free from rust, taint, or damage; and 
when the same are found in good order and of good ([uality they shall be jiacked either in tierces con- 
taining e.ach 300 pounds, in barrels containing each 200 pounds, in half-barrels containing each 100 
pounds, or in packages containing each less than 100 pounds, on which the number of puunds therein 
shall be plainly and legibly Iiranded. Every cask, kit, or package shall be packed with good, clean 
salt suitable for the purpose, and, after packing with sufficient salt to preserve its contents, shall he 
headed or well secured, and filled up with a clean, strung pickle. 

Casks used for packing or repacking pickled fish intended for exportation, except casks contain- 
ing less than 2.'5 pounds weight, shall be made of sound, well-seasoned white oak, ash, red oak, spruce, 
pine, or chestnut staves of rift timber, sound and well seasoned, with heading of either of said kinds 
of wood, and when of pine such heading shall be free from sap and knots and be planed. The barrels, 
half-liarrels, and tierces shall be well hooped with at least three good hoops of sufficient substance 
on each bilge and three hoojis of the like quality on each chime. The barrel staves shall be 28 inches 
in length and the heads shall be 17 inches between the chimes. The barrels shall contain not less than 
28 nor more than 20 gallons each ; the half-barrels not less than 15 gallons each ; and the tierces not 
less than 4."i nor more than 4(i gallons each. Each cask shall be made in a workmanlike manner, and 
branded on its side, near the bung, with the name of the nuiker. 

There shall be five qualities of mackerel, three of salmon and shad, and two of other kinds of 
pickled fish. Mackerel of the best ijuality, not mutilated, measuring nol; less than 13 inches from the 
extremity of the head to the crotch or fork of the tail, free from rust, taint, or damage, shall be 
branded "number one." The next best ciuality, being not less than 11 inches, measuring as aforesaid, 
free from rust, taint, or damage, shall be branded "number two." Those that remain after the above 
selections, if free from taint or damage, and not less than 13 inches, measuring as aforesaid, shall be 
branded "number three, large." Those of the next inferior quality, free from taint or damage, not 
less than 10 Indies in length as aforesaid, shall be branded "number three." All other mackerel free 
from taint or damage shall be branded "number four." Those salmon and shad which are of the best 
quality for family use, free from rust or damage, shall be selected for "number one" and "number 
two," the best of them selected and branded "number one," the residue "nnmbir two"; all that 
remain I'ree from taint, and sound, shall be branded "number three." Of all other pickleil fish the 
best, which are free from taint and damage, shall be braudcd "number one"; those that remain, free 
from taint and sound, "number two." 

Each cask, kit, or package shall bo filled with fish of the same kind or parts of the same kind 
of fish, and whoever intermixes, takes out, or shifts anj' inspected fish which are packed or branded 
as aforesaid, or puts in other fish for sale or exportation, shall forfeit $15 for each package so altered. 
If any casualty renders it necessary to repack a cask of inspected fish it shall iu all cases be done by 
an insi)ector of such fish. 

The inspector shall brand, in plain, legible letters, on the head of each cask of fish inspected by 
him, the denomination of the fish ])acked or repacked therein, the initials of his Christian name, and 
the whole of his surname ; and, if a deputy, the nainc of the place for which he is appointed, the letters 



430 BOLLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

"MasB.," and the year in which the fish are packed; and sliall also, when in his judgment it may he 
necessary, nail in a suitable manner any cask in which fish are packed. Pickled fish duly inspected 
in the State or country iu which it is packed shall not he subject to reinspectiou in this State. 

Small fish, which are usually packed whole with dry salt or pickle, shall he put iu good casks of 
the size and materials required in this chapter for the packing of split pickled fish, and shall be packed 
close in the cask and well salted. The casks shall befilled full with the fish and salt, and no more salt 
shall be put with the fish than is necessary for their preservation, and the casks containing such whole 
fish shall be branded with the denomination of the fish, and a like designation of the qualities as is 
before described in this chapter iu respect to the qualities of other pickled fish. 

In Rhode Island provision is made for the election annually of one or more packers 
of fish in each town, who shall see that all fish packed in the State are properly 
pickled and repacked in casks in good shipping order, with good salt, sufficient in 
each cask to preserve such fish from damage, to any foreign port. Other provisions of 
the law are as follows : 

Pickled fish, whether codfish, mackerel, menhaden, herrings, or other fish, shall be sorted and 
one kind only be put into one cask. 

Every cask shall be well seasoned and bound with 12 hoops; these of menhaden and herrings of 
the capacity to hold 28 gallons, and those for other fish of the capacity, if a barrel, to hold 200 pounds, 
and if a half-barrel, 100 pouuds weight offish; each cask to be full, and the fish sound and well cured. 

Every cask being first searched, examined, and approveil by a packer shall, when packed or 
repacked for exportation, be branded legibly on one head with the kind of fish it contains and the 
weight thereof; or the capacity of the cask, with the first letter of the Christian and tlie whole of 
the surname of the packer, with the name of the town, and with the words "Rhode Island" in letters 
not less than three-fourths of an inch long, to deuote that the same is merchantable and in good 
order for exportation. 

Every cask of pickled codfish and mackerel oft'ered for sale or for exportation from this State 
shall also be branded "No. 1," "No. 2," or "No. 3," to deuote the quality of such fish. 

Nothing in this chapter contained shall hinder any fisherman or owners of fish coming to this 
State from their fishing trips from selling or reshipping their fish to any other of the United States 
without being packed into barrels or half-barrels. 

Connecticut regulations for the inspection of pickled fish relate especially to the 
curing of shad, and since none of those fish are now pickled in that State except for 
home consumption the regulations are inoperative. The pickled-fish inspection laws 
of other States are either iii()i)erative or they relate to certain species, and will be 
noted in the account of the methods of preserving those particular products. 

BRINE-SALTED MACKEREL. 

In the preparation of few marine products iu this country are such nice distinctions 
made as in pickling or brine-salting mackerel. Not only has the work been reduced 
almost to a science by the fishermen and dealers, bitt it has been surrounded with a 
mass of legislation (jualifying the manner of j)reparation almost witliouta parallel in 
the preservation of food products. Mackerel salting in the United States is confined 
almost entirely to Massachusetts and Maine, and four- fifths of the product is prepared in 
the first-named State, Gloucester and Boston being the principal centers of the trade. 
A few barrels are prepared also in New Ibimpshire, Ithode Island, and Connecticut. 

The pickling of mackerel was of but little extent prior to the beginning of the 
present century, the anuual product on the entire coast previous to 1810 rarely 
exceeding 15,000 barrels. The first salt-mackerel trip from Gloucester is said to have 
been made by the schooner President to Cashes Ledge, in the Gulf of Maine, about 1810. 
From that time to 1831 tlie industry rapidly increased, tlie output of Maine, New 
Hampshire, and Massachusetts during the last-named year reaching 449,950 barrels, 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 431 

the largest product in the history of the fishery. The value of the yield during that 
year was $1,862,793, while the vahie of the 324,454 barrels packed in those States in 
1804 reached $7,001,098. lu 1881 the yield was 391,057 barrels, with a reported valu- 
ation of $2,447,556, The increasing demand for fresh fish in this country has aiiected 
the trade in salt mackerel, a much smaller proportion of the catch being salted during 
recent years than formerly. Of the 131,939,2.55 pounds of mackerel taken in the 
United States fisheries in 1880, 80 per cent was salted, whereas during very recent 
years the salted mackerel represents less than half of the total yield. The quantity 
of these fish caught lias also decreased greatly, so that at present the trade in salt 
mackerel is very much less than it was fifteen years ago. In 1887 the domestic product 
was 93,582 barrels, valued at $1, 004,124; in 1890 it decreased to 20,742 barrels, worth 
$306,731; while in 1892 it numbered 46,946 barrels, worth $611,486. The yield was 
24,939 barrels in 1895, 77,464 barrels in 1890, 13,154 barrels in 1897, and 14,286 barrels 
in 1898, less than 5 per cent of the animal average during the 40 years preceding 1886. 

During the last thirty years ciuantities of salted mackerel have been prei)ared in 
the British North American Provinces, the annual product during the past three or 
four years averaging about 25,000 barrels. The mackerel taken on the coasts of 
Europe are generally sold fresh, but in Ireland, Norway, England, and Scotland many 
barrels are salted each year, especially in Ireland. Of the 399,3(J1 barrels taken in 
those four countries in 1895, 46,500 barrels were salted, nearly all of which found a 
market in America. In 1897 the European product of salt mackerel was 57,352 
barrels, and in 1898 it approximated ,50,000 barrels. The European method of salting 
mackerel was until recently considered somewhat inferior to that in vogue in the 
United States, differing from the American method principally in that the fish were 
split down the belly instead of down the back, they were not soaked to remove the 
blood, and in packing in the barrel they were placed face up. The packers, however, 
have rectified these mistakes and the foreign mackerel ai'e at present more carefully 
prepared than formerly, and those received in this country from Ireland and Norway 
now compare very favorably with the domestic product. 

The domestic mackerel that find their way into the salt-fish trade ai'e taken 
principally in purse seines, most of those caught by means of lines, gill nets, pound- 
nets, etc., being marketed fresh. When salted, however, they are prepared in the 
same manner as those taken in purse seines, excei)t that, the yield being usually much 
less in quantity, facilities for handling the fish rapidly are not of so great importance. 

Mackerel taken by seines or gill nets do not usually keep so well when salted as 
those taken by lines, as the hitter are taken in smaller quantities and greater care 
can be used in handling them, and they may be readily salted before deterioration 
begins and very shortly after being removed from the water. 

The methods of salting as here given relate especially to fish taken by purse seines. 

When the lish are removed from the seine by means of a large dip net they are 
thrown on deck; or, if the catch be large, they are placed in a "pocket" or "s[)iller," 
rigged along the side of the vessel, where they can be kept alive until the crew have 
time to dress and salt them. So many fish are sometimes taken at a single haul that 
if at once removed to the deck many would spoil before the tislu-iinen could properly 
care for them, and the purpose of the pocket is to jjrovide a receptacle in which fish 
may be kept alive for several hours. This pocket was iutroiiuced in 1877 in a simple 
form on the schooner Alice, of Swan Island. An improved form was invented by 11. E. 
WillardjOf Portland, Me., and jjatented in April, 1881, but valuable improvements and 



432 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

modifications have been made in its construction since that time. The following is 
a description : 

The mackerel pocket is a large rectangular net bag, usually 36 feet long, 15 feet wide, and 30 feet 
deep, with 2-inch mesh, hung to IJ-inch rope. On the portion of the rope next to the vessel wooden 
floats are strung for the purpose of securing the edge of the pocket to the rail of the vessel, this edge 
being fastened over the rail and between it and a board held in position by wooden pins. The outer 
corners of the pocket are supported by ropes running through blocks attached to outriggers 4 inches 
in diameter, by means of which the outer edge of the pocket may be elevated or depressed. To the 
outer edge of the pocket is attached a rope bridle, the ends of which are fastened about 9 feet from 
each outrigger. A thimble is attached to the middle of this bridle, and when the mackerel have been 
turned into the pocket the fore and after staysail halyards are bent into the thimble and the outer 
edge of the pocket thus supported and the outriggers relieved from considerable strain. In getting 
the fish into the pocket the latter is slacked down to the surface of the water and the outer edge is 
fastened to the cork rope of the seine. By gathering the twine of the seine, beginning at the side 
farthest from the pocket, the tish are readily turned into the pocket, and the edge of the latter is then 
raised above the surface of the water. 

Unfortunately the fishermen have found little use for these pockets during the 
last six years, the catch of mackerel being so small that they can be readily cared for 
before any of them s|)oil. The fish are removed from the pocket in quantities ranging 
from 2.'» to 100 barrels at a time. If the weather be warm and moderate the quantity 
removed at a time is small, but when the air is cool or the water rough or when 
dogfish are abundant the quantity is very nuich larger. 

For dressing the fish, the crew is divided into working gangs of three men each, 
one of whom splits and the other two, known as "gibbers," gill and eviscerate the 
fish. Bach gang of men is provided with a splitting board from (J to 10 inches wide 
and with two wooden tiays about 3 feet square and f> inches deep, which are generally 
suppoited on the tops of barrels. Some crews, especially in the hand-line fi.shery, have 
only two men in each s))littiiig gang, the splitter or some one else getting the barrels, 
filliug them with water, and otherwise aiding tiie gibber. The splitter with his left 
hand, which is nsual'-y covered with a cotton mitf en for protection as well as to prevent 
the fisli from slipping, takes the fish round the center of the body, with the tail toward 
him, and splits it down the back on the left side of the backbone from the head to the 
tail, so that it will lie open and fiat after the viscera havt^ been removed, the knife being 
held by the fingers and guided by the thumb sliding along the upper side of the fish. 
On splitting each fish he tosses it to the tray of the gibber, who, with hands 
covered with gloves to protect them against the bones, opens the fish with a jerk, 
causing it to break lengthwise along the lower end of the ribs if it is fat, thus making 
a crease on each side. He removes the viscera and gills and throws the fish, open and 
face down, into a barrel partly filled with clean salt water, in which the blood is soaked 
from the fiah, whence they are called " wash barrels." There the fish remain until the 
splitting is finished, which nmy be 6 or 8 hours or even longer after the first fish have 
been split. Tlien the deck is cleaned up and the men proceed to salting. 

A good splitter can handle from 2,000 to .'^,500 mackerel per hour, and under 
favorable circumstances L'OO barrels of mackerel can be cared for by a crew of lli or 1.5 
men without dllliciilty before any of them spoil. Sometimes, when a large haul has 
been made, the ciew may work steadily for 24 or even 3(i hours in succession, losing 
only the brief time given ti) meals. By practice they can split and dress the fish as 
well at night as during the day. 

If the men have time they "plow" or ream tlie fish, making a cut in the abdominal 
cavity on each side near the backbone, in imitation of the natural cracks or breaks 



PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 433 

which occur in fat fish, thus giving the ttsh a fat appearance. "Plowing" was begun 
about 1S30, and although for a number of years there was great opposition to the 
innovation, it is at the present time recognized as a legitimate feature of the trade. 
The fatness of mackerel as well as the size determines the quality, and the degree of 
fatness is most readily ascertained by noting the portious covering the abdominal 
cavity. When the fish is very fat these portions crack open about halfway from the 
backbone to the center of the abdominal cavity, and the depth of these cracks 
indicates the relative fatness of the fish. By making the break or crack nearer to 
the backbone than where it would ordinarily occur and where the flesh is considerably 
thicker, the fish is given the ai)pearance of being much fatter than it really is. At 
first these cracks were made by using the thumb nail, and later by the back of the 
point of the splitting knife, the cut by degrees being made higher than it naturally 
belonged. The use of the knife led gradually to the introduction of the plow or 
reamer, of which there are many styles, some made wholly of wood, others with the end 
tipped with pewter and with fine teeth on the edge, so as to make the crease rough, 
as though it were broken naturally. A poi)ular form consists of a small cutting 
blade about 1^ inches in length, cut square forward and tapering to a point at the heel, 
attached to a curved iron shank, to which a wooden handle is fixed. 

In salting, the mackerel are emptied from the wash barrels upon the deck and 
rinsed by throwing buckets of water over them. A man jjlaces them, a few at a time, 
on a gib tub containing a half bushel or more of No. '2 Liverpool salt, while another 
man, taking a fish in each hand, rubs the flesh side of the fish in the salt and, 
with the back of one fish against the flesh of the other, places them in the sea barrel 
with the flesh side down, excei>t that the two or three bottom layers or tiers have 
the flesh side up. Formerly it was customary to place all the fish with flesh side up, 
but this has been abandoned. The salt is carried in the hold in barrels that are sub- 
sequently used for packing the mackerel. Liverpool salt is used almost wholly, Cadiz 
and other coarse salts having a tendency to tear and give a ragged appearance to the 
mackerel. It is quite important that every i)ortiou of the surface of the fish be in 
contact with the salt, and care should be taken not to leave finger marks where the 
lingers or thumb cover portions of the fish during the process of salting and prevent 
the access of salt. 

Formerly on some vessels, especially those from Cape Cod, the mackerel were not 
rubbed in the salt, but were placed in the barrel with the flesh side up and the salt 
scattered over them. In salting the fish in that manner, Cadiz salt was used prin- 
cipally. The present method is much more rajHd and leaves the fish in much neater 
condition, because the coarse salt pressing against the fish indents and lacerates it. 
l>y either i)rocess a barrel of mackerel may be salted in from 8 to ir> minutes, about a 
bushel of salt being used. After standing for a day or so and settling, the barrels are 
topped up by adding more struck fish to each barrel. When convenient, the barrels 
are headed and stowed in the hold or secured on deck until the vessel reaches port. 

On arrival at porl the barrels of mackerel are removed and placed on the wharf 
or in a storehouse until opportunity arises for repacking them, which may not be for 
months. Then the top of the barrel is removed, the brine poured ofl' and discarded, 
the fish emptied out, several barrels at a time, into a culling crib or box of planed 
boards with slat bottom and usually 5 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 8 to 10 inches deep, 
placed on legs about 3 feet high. The fish are there culled into the several grades 
recognized by the trade and thrown into two weighing tubs, each holding about 100 

F. C. B., 1S98— 28 



434 lU'LLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION 

pounds, wbicli rest on ii beam scale. These tubs have wooden staves and have the 
bottom perforated with iueh holes to permit drainage, or, better still, a rope net-work 
bottom, and are bou!id with two iron hoops and have an iron handle on each side. 
The diameter of the tub is 24 inches at the top and the height is about 15 inches. 
When the ijroper weight of fish is placed iu the tubs the iish are removed to a packing- 
crib, somewhat similar to the culling crib, and usually 38 inches long, 20 inches wide, 
and 14 inches deep, where they are packed in barrels or smaller packages, the various 
grades being kept separate from each other and placed iu difterent packages. 

In packing, a small quantity of salt is sprinkled in the bottom of the barrel, next 
two or more layers of tish, with the Hesh side up and succeeding layers of fish with 
the back up. Over each layer of fish a large handful of salt is sprinkled, about 35 
pounds being used for each barrel of fish, which is recjuired by law to contain 200 
pounds of mackerel, exclusive of the weight of the pickle: while half, (juarter, and 
eighth barrels must contain proportionate quantities. The total shrinkage on salt 
mackerel from the' round to the marketable state is about 33 per cent. After being- 
tilled the barrel is headed and moved to some appropriate place on the wharf or in the 
storehouse, where it is "pickled''; that is, a hole is bored in the side or head of the 
barrel and as juuch brine as the barrel will contain is poured iu. This brine should 
be made quite strong, at least of 95° salinometer test, and it is conveniently introduced 
by means of a water bucket with a copper nozzle in the bottom, forming a funnel, the 
end of whicli is placed in the hole made in the side of the barrel, a vent on the side 
permitting the air to escape. The hole is then plugged up and the barrel turned on 
end and branded. The branding kettle most commonly used is of stout sheet iron, 
cylinder shaped, inches in diameter and 12 inches high. A rod with a wooden 
handle at the top passes through the center of the kettle and furnishes the means for 
handling it. A charcoal lire is made in the kettle and when the brand, usually made 
of brass at the bottom, is sufficiently heated, tlie barrels are stamped with the legal 
inspection marks. Because of leakage and evaporation it is frequently necessary to 
add additional pickle to the barrel after it has stood several days, the deficiency being 
noted by the sound produced by striking the barrel with a stick. 

The total cost of repacking mackerel, including- barrels, salt, and all labor, from 
the time the fish are received from the vessel, ranges between $1.25 and $1.60 per 
barrel, depending on the market price for barrels, labor, etc. 

The general average of cost approximates $1.44 per barrel, apportioned as follows: 

Labor — -weigliiiig .and culling $0.25 

Labor in packing 10 

Sal t in packing 10 

Cooperate 06 

Kepickling 08 

Bangor barrel 55 

Supervision, use of plant, etc 30 

The laws of most of the New England States recjuire that the work of culling, 
weighing, packing, and pickling be all performed under the personal supervision of a 
State inspector, who places his brand on the head of each barrel or package, indicating 
the kind and grade of fish, name of inspector, name of town and State where packed, 
and date of jiacking. In Maine and New namjjsliire it is necessary that the date 
include the month as well as the year in which the fish are i)ackcd, but in Massachu- 
setts the year is deemed sufficient. If by becoming rusty, or the pickle leaking out, 
the fish require repacking, they must again be inspected. There is much difference in 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 435 

the quality of mackerel taken dmiiiy dittercut seasons of tlie year. TLe early spring 
catch is generally very poor aud shrinks considenibly when salted. The fish increase 
ill fatness as the season advances, and those taken during the fall usually improve in 
weight in pickle. Full grown fresh mackerel measure 17 or 18 inches in length, but 
some over 20 inches and weighing 3 or 4 pounds are caught. The average length is 
about 12 inches and the weight a trifle less than u pound. Salted mackerel measure 
considerably less, due to the loss of the head and the slight shrinkage in salting. 

The grades of salted mackerel are very carefully defined by the statutes of various 
New England States, and with little difference in one State from those in another. In 
Maine salted mackerel of the best quality, not mutilated, measuring, when split, not 
less than 13 inches from the extremity of the head to the fork of the tail, free from 
taint, rust, or damage, are branded as "number one"; the next best quality, being not 
less than 11 inches, measuring as aforesaid, free from taint, rust, or damage, are 
branded as "number two"; second quality mackerel, but free from taint or damage, 
and not less than 13 inches, are branded as "number three, large"; those of the same 
quality, not less than 10 inches in length, are branded as "number three," and all 
other mackerel, free from taint or damage, are branded as "number three, small." 
The grades required by the laws of New Hampshire and Massachusetts are almost 
identical with the aforegoing, except that in the last-named States the fish are branded 
as "number four" instead of " number tliree, small." The regulations of Rhode Island 
are somewhat indefinite in this particular, reciuiriiig merely that every cask of mack- 
erel offered for sale or for exportation from the State shall be branded "number one," 
"number two," or "number three," to denote the quality of such fish. 

In addition to the grades designated by law, packers of mackerel prepare 8i)ecial 
grades known as "extra ones," "extra twos," "bloaters," etc. Extra ones are superior 
in size and fatness to legal ones, and are sold at a much higher price; aud the same 
ditterence exists between extra twos aud legal twos. Bloaters are the choicest mackerel 
prepared, and only a few barrels are secured each season. 

Mess mackerel are also prepared as an additional form of the other grades. These 
are principally the best and fattest mackerel that would pass as numbers one and 
trwo, with the heads aud tails removed, and with the slime, etc., carefully brushed off 
before being repacked. There is an average loss of about 17 per cent in weight in 
preparing mess mackerel from the customary condition of pickled mackerel, but this 
varies considerably, depending on the size and degree of fatness of the fijsh. 

The laws of most of the New lingland States regulate the character and size of 
the barrels in which pickled mackerel are packed and the materials of which they are 
made. The law of Maine requires all barrels and casks to be made of sound, well- 
seasoned white oak, white ash, spruce, pine, chestnut, or ])oplar staves, with heading 
of either of such kinds of wood, sound, well planed, and seasoned, and the barrel or 
cask to be hooped with at least three strong hoops on each bilge, and three also on 
each chime; the barrel staves to be 28 inches in length and the heads to be 17 inches 
between the chimes. In Massachusetts all packages, except those containing less 
than 25 pounds weight, must be made of white oak, ash, red oak, spruce, pine, or 
chestnut, and the number of the hoops and the size of the barrel staves and heads 
are the same as set forth in the Maine laws. In each State the barrel must hold 
between 28 and 2!) gallons, and the half-barrel not less than 15 gallons, and the tierce 
between 45 and 46 gallons. The regulations in New Hampshire are identical with 
those of Massachusetts as to the ijuality of the material and dimensions of the barrel, 



436 



BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 



but require tlmt it shall contain between 29 and 30 gallons. Each cask must be made 
in a workmanlike manner so as to bold pickle, and be branded on its side near the 
bung with the name of the maker. 

Most of the barrels used for luckling mackerel are manufactured iu Bangor, Me., 
but a few are made in various other parts of N^ew England. The price is generally 
from $40 to $5.') per 100, but when an unexpectedly large demand for them exists they 
sometimes sell as high as $1 each at the fishing port. Barrels once used are sometimes 
repaired and used over again, but this practice is not commendable. 

For convenience in marketing, brine-salted mackerel are frequently placed in half, 
quarter, eighth, and sixteenth barrels, after they have been prepared in the regulation- 
size barrels. In recent years a considerable market has been developed for much 
smaller packages, and when the fish are sufticiently cheap, they are frequently put up 
in 5 pound and 3i)ouud tin cans, for a description of which see page 520. 

The following summary, compiled from the flies of the Gloucester papers, shows 
the fishermen's price per barrel of the principal grades of mackerel during the first 
week of September iu each year from 1830 to 1898, representing generally the average 
for the year : 



Tear. 


No.l. 


No. 2. 


No. 3. 


1830 


$5.00 
5.75 
5.00 
5.72 
5.72 
7.0U 
9.00 
7.75 
11.00 
12.50 
12.75 

12. 00 
9.00 

10.12 
9.50 

13. UO 
9.12 

12.75 
9.00 
12.00 
10. 12 
10.00 
9.00 


$4.50 
4.75 
4.00 
4.72 
4.72 
6.00 
8.00 
6.50 
9.25 
10.50 
10.50 
10.00 
0.00 
8.12 
7..iO 
10.50 
6.25 
8.25 
6.00 
7.00 
8.12 
6.50 
7.00 


$2.62 
2.62 

2.75 
2.85 
3.35 
4.00 
5.00 
4.12 
5.50 
7.00 
5.50 
6.00 
4.00 
6.00 
5.50 
6.87 
3.87 
4.25 
3.37 
3.50 
5.00 
5.12 
5.75 


1831 


1832 


18:13 


1834 


1835 


1836 


1837 


1838 


1839 


1840 


1841 


1842 


1843 


1844 


1845 


1846 


1847 


1848 


1849 


1850 


1851 







Tear. 



1853. 
1854, 
1855. 
1856. 
1857 
1858 
1859. 
1860 
1861. 
1862 
1863 
1864 
1865 
1866 
1867 
1868 
1869 
1870 
1871 
1872 
1873 
1874 
1875 



No.l. 



$11. 50 
15.00 
19.00 
13.00 
15. 00 
15.50 
14.50 
16.00 
8. ,50 
8.25 
14.00 
30.00 
22.00 
22. 75 
17.00 
17.00 
23.00 
23.00 
11.25 
14.50 
20.00 
13.25 
16.25 



No. 2. 



$9.50 

12.25 

11.00 

8.00 

12.50 

12.50 

12.59 

8.50 

4.50 

6.00 

9.25 

20.00 

15.00 

13.25 

12.25 

13.00 

11.50 

9.75 

7.25 

9.50 

12. 25 

11.00 

10.25 



No. 3. ': Year. 



$7.50 
5.00 
6,25 
6.00 
8.50 
8.50 
8.50 
5.00 
2.75 
4.50 
6.50 



No.l. 



9.75 
'7.50' 



6.25 
7.00 
9.00 
7.00 
7.50 



1876 
1877 
1878 
1879 
1880 
1881 
1882 
1883 
1884 
1885 
1886 
1 887 
1888 
1889 
1890 
1891 
1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 
1896 
1897 
1898 



$15. 00 
16.50 
18.00 
16.00 
14.00 
14.00 
18.00 
20. 00 
14.00 
13.75 
22.00 
17.50 
22.00 
28.00 
21.00 
18.00 
20.00 
16.50 
18.00 
20.00 
17.50 
16.00 
17.00 



No. 2. 



$6.75 
12.50 

8.00 

5.00 

7.00 

6.00 

11.00 

14.00 

10.00 

5.75 

12.50 

14.00 

18.50 

25.00 

17.50 

13.00 

12.00 

14.00 

14.50 



14.50 



No. 3. 



$3.50 
8.00 
5.00 
3.00 
4.00 
4.00 
8.00 
10.60 
3.50 
3.75 
9.50 
11.00 
14.00 
17.011 
13.00 
8.00 
10.00 
12.00 
12. 50 



11.50 



BRINE-SALTED HERRING. 



Several different species of the Clupeidie family are known locally in the United 
States as herring. The principal ones are the sea herring (Glupea harengtis), so 
abundant in the Gulf of Maine; two kinds of alewife (PomoloJyns pseudnharemiun and 
P. (I'stivaUn), known on many parts of the coast as river herring, and the herring of 
the Great Lakes (Argyrosomus artedi). The sea herring occurs north of xMontauk, 
while the alewife inliabits the rivers and bays all along the Atlantic seaboard, the 
fishery being of the greatest imijortance in the tributaries of Chesapeake Bay and 
Albemarle Sound. The herring of northern Europe are of the same species as those 
of the New England coast. 

In this report the name "herring" refers to the Clupea harengiis, the other species 
bping known as alewives or river herring and lake herring. 

It is impossible to assign even an approximate date for the first salting or pickling 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 437 

of lierriiig. Francis Day, iu his well-known work on the Fishes of Great Britain and 
Ireland, jiarts v-ix, p. 222, writes as follows on this snbject: 

Atthi' beginniug of the twelfth century there were herring fisheries in the Baltic, to which many 
foreign vessels resorted; these herring must, therefore, have heen sailed; in fact, iu 1155 Louis Vll, 
of France, prohibited his subjects purchasing anything but uiaclierel and salted herrings at Estampes. 

The manner of curing these fish is considered to have been very crude until the 
time of William Beuckels, or Beuckelzon, a fish merchant of Biervliet, in Flanders, 
who, during the fourteenth century, greatly improved the methods in use and laid the 
foundation of the great wealth ac(iuired later by Holland in this business. r>eu(;kelzou 
died in 1397, and a monument was erected to his memory by Charles Y iu his native 
village, Borgo; while Mary of Hungary, duriug a visit to the Low Countries, is said 
lo have paid a more characteristic tribute to his memory, iiamely, that of eating a salt 
herring at his tomb. 

The first mention we have of ])ickled herring iu America is by Josselyn, in the 
seventeenth century, who, iu his Chronological Observations of America, says: "We 
used to qualify a pickled herring by boiliTig of him in milk." It is almost self-evident, 
however, that the pickling of herring was carried on by the earliest settlers of America, 
and possibly by the fishermen who resorted to these shores from Europe before the 
country was settled, as it was an old-established business in Europe. 

The quantity of herring preserved by the process of pickling is greater than that 
of all other species combined, aggregating nearly 3,000,000 barrels anuually, but the 
yield in tlie 1 • iiited States (about 30,000 barrels annually) is small compared with the 
product of iScotland, Sweden, and the Netherlands. Half a century ago the outjjut 
iu New England was many times greater than at present, and there was a considerable 
export trade, amounting at times to 00,000 barrels; but, owing to carelessness in the 
method of pickling and absence of uniformity in the quality of the product and iu 
weight of the packages, the trade has been captured by the foreign curers, who now 
sell about 150,000 barrels annually in the United States, at double the price received 
for the domestic article. In view of the large quantities of herring on the New 
England coast and the extensive markets that already exist in this country as well as 
in the adjacent couutries to the south, it seems extremely desirable that more care 
should be given to the curing of this fish, and the preparation should be governed by 
fixed standards applicable to both quality and quantity. 

The quality of pickled herring varies greatly, depending almost entirely on the 
quality of the fresh fish and the promptness and care exercised iu curing them. Few 
fish are more difficult to properly cure than this species; the flesh is very delicate and 
tender, and not only does it iujure readily, but it is much less able to take the salt if 
the pickling be long delayed alter removal from the water. If placed in pickle 
before they have been much exposed, they take the salt quickly and the natural 
quality and flavor of the fish are better preserved. Another important rule iu pre- 
paring this as well as other kinds of fish is to have the greatest possible cleanliness 
iu the salting houses and in the tubs and barrels used for salting. 

There is no uniform method of curing herring in this coirntry, but most of them 
are salted just as removed froui the water, without splitting or dressing, and are known 
as "rouud herring," to distinguish tliem from the "gibbed herring," which have the 
gills, heart, etc., removed, and the " split herring," which have the gills and all viscera 
removed. The method of preparing each will be described separately. 



438 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH f'OMMISSION. 

KOUND HERRING. 

Tlie Imlk of tljf Leniug salted ou the New England coast are taken in the vessel 
gill-net tisheiy, and the fish are usually salted on board the vessels. Some are taken 
also by small boats making daily trips to the flsliinggrounds, and these are necessarily 
salted on shore. The methods of salting the tish on the vessels and ou shore ditter 
only according to the facilities for handling tlieiu. 

In the vessel fishery, as the herring are removed from the nets they are placed ou 
deck and water is soused over to remove loose scales, blood, etc., and sometimes salt 
is sprinkled over them. They are next ])laced in hogshead tubs with about 3 pecks 
of salt to the barrel offish scattered among them, when they are covered with briue and 
left standing for four or five days, or until they are struck. It is important that the 
salting be done as soon as practicable after the fish are removed from the water, and 
in the meantime they should be protected from the sun. After being struck, the fish 
are repacked in market barrels, where they remaiu for twenty-four hours for settling, 
when the barrels are topped up by adding a few struck tish to eacli barrel. It requires 
about 330 salted fish to fill a barrel, the number of fresh herring required beiug about 
300. In packing the fish in the barrel, they are usually placed with backs slanting 
upward. Occasionally, however, those in the lower half of tiie barrel are placed back 
down, and sometimes a few upper and lower layers are carefully placed and the middle 
portions arranged with less care. After the barrel has been topped up it is filled with 
brine, headed, aiul stored in the hold. On arrival at port, if it apjjcars from sounding 
that some of the pickle has leaked out, more is added through a hole bored in the 
bilge and the hole plugged up, when the barrel is nrady for branding and marketing. 
Sometimes at the port the tish are repacked, so as to insure full weight and good flsli, 
new brine being made, if necessary, butif the old pickle is clear it is used over again. 

To determine the proper amount of salt required for curing herring requires 
considerable skill and experience, and the quantity varies according to the condition 
of the fish, the season of the year, etc. If too much salt be used the fish will soon 
become hard and dry, with greatly diminished fiavor, but if the quantity of salt be 
insuflflcient the fish will become tainted and unfit for food within a short time. During 
warm weather more salt must be used than when the temperature is low, and thin 
small herring re<juire less salt than thick or large ones. As a general rule, about 5 
pecks of salt are required for curing each barrel of herring. 

In pickling on shore, the fish ou their arrival are dumi)ed into tanks or wash 
barrels of sea water, from which they are at once removed with a brail net, the fish 
being rinsed up and down at the same time, and placed in a pickling butt or vat with 
about 3 pecks of salt scattered among each 200 pounds of fish and a heap placed 
ou top. In two or three days a workman with high rubber boots passes over the 
butts, treading ou the heaps of fish to separate them if massed together. Or, iu 
some localities, the masses are separated by stirring them with a spudger, consisting 
of a thick board 10 inches long and 2 or 3 inches wide, nailed in the center to a wooden 
handle. The fish remain in the butts eight or ten days, being examined occasionally 
and more salt beiug added to keep the pickle sweet. After being thoroughly struck, 
the fish are removed with dij) nets and placed on a packing table, whence they are 
packed in the market barrels, 200 pounds to each barrel, sometimes with backs up and 
sometimes with bellies up, according to market demands, about half a bushel of salt 
being scattered among them during the process of packing. The barrels are then 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 439 

licadcd ;uhI a hole bored in the bilge or Lead and sufficient strong brine added to fill 
tlio barrel; tlie liole is tlien plugged and the barrel is ready for shipment. It is 
important that tiie herring be packed so tight in tiie barrel that their relative positions 
are not disturbed in handling the barrel, thus removing the scales and breaking the 
fish. There is little decrease in weight in pickling herring, 211 pounds of fresh fish 
making a barrel of 200 pounds of round herring. The jnarket price for round herring 
during recent years has ranged from $3 to $5 per barrel. 

The cost of preparing a barrel of pickled round herring in New England is about 
$2,37, ajiportioned as follows: 

Cost of 200 pounds of fiesli herring $1.00 • 

Labor of pickling iu butts 07 

Salt used in pickliug iu butts 20 

Barrel 50 

Salt used iu packing in barrel 09 

Labor of packing in barrel 08 

Cooperage 06 

Cartage 07 

Wear and tear, loss, etc • .30 

GIBBED AND SPLIT HKRRTNG. 

Although most of the herring taken on the New England coast are salted round, 
some of them are either gibbed or split before being salted. This method of curing 
the fisli is much more effective than salting them round, the latter being objectionable 
because all the blood is thereby retained in the fisli and undergoes a slight decompo- 
sition before the salt thoroughly strikes through the skin and flesh. It is very infre- 
quent that herring are salted round in Europe, the usual practice being to gib them 
before salting. Less salt is also required for preserving the flsh when they have been 
Llibbed, and thus the flavor of the i)roduct is improved. Gibbing consists iu removing 
the gills, heart, and sometimes the viscera from the fish by means of the thumb and 
forefinger. It requires 228 pounds of round flsh to make 200 pounds of gibbed flsh. 
(;ibbing is very little jiracticed now in the New England States, because the flsh are 
usually not very fat, and look thin and jwor when gibbed. Splitting is jjerformed by 
cutting the flsh down the belly to the vent, removing the gills and viscera, and usually 
the roe bags and milt of spawning herring. In some localities, especially at Eastport, 
Me., it is customary to immerse the fish in brine for a few moments before they are 
cut. This causes the herring to keep their scales Wetter and brighter, and they can 
also be handled more readily in splitting. Splitting was originally applied only to the 
extra large herring iu order to i)ermit the salt to more readily strike through them; it 
is now commonly practiced in Newfoundland and Canada, but herring for pickliug 
are rarely split down the belly in the extensive fisheries of Europe. 

After evisceration the fish are immersed in tubs of salt water for a couple of 
hours to allow the blood to be soaked from them, when they are packed in butts or 
tight barrels, back down, with the stomach cavities filled with salt and with a layer 
of salt sprinkled between the layers of fish, about 3 pecks of salt being used for each 
barrel of fish. When properly struck the flsh are repacked in the same manner as 
the round herring above described. In packing in the barrel some fishermen place 
them on their backs and slightly inclined to one side. Others place them fully on the 
back. The latter appears to be the better method, as it gives the herring a more 
round and thick appearance and the pickle has a better chance at the abdominal 
cavity. The split herring usually sell at about $1 per barrel more than round herring, 



440 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

l)ut in 1898 the price was approximately tlie same. A -00-ponnd barrel of fre.sli 
herring' will weigli 144 pounds when split and eviscerated, losing 50 pounds in dressing. 
Sometimes, in order to till ont a shipment of split herring, round salted herring are 
split and eviscerated and added thereto. In this ojieration care must be taken not to 
tear the fish. 

The present condition of the pickled-herring industry in this country is far from 
satisfactory. Great improvements in the methods of cure are desirable, and unless 
the (juality of the product be bettered there seems little probability of an increase in 
the pros[)erity of the business. The abundance of these tisli on the Sew England 
coast during certain seasons of the year, and the large market demand for pickled 
herring in this country, should encourage our fishermen to put up a product that will 
compare favorably and compete with the foreign cured herring, the great necessity 
l)eing a flxcd standard, applicable to quantity as well as quality, with proper culling 
and grading of the different kinds. Usually during September and October there is 
a run of tine herring on the ^STew England coast, which if i)repared with that care 
exercised in the curing of Euro])ean herring would probably be nearly if not equally 
as good; but at present their value is depreciated by too long exposure to the sun 
and air before salting, by carelessness in the manner of salting, failure to separate 
the tish into the various grades, and by using weak barrels in the packing. 

THE IMPORTATION OF FOREIGN HERRING. 

The great bulk of the pickled herring consumed in the United States is prepared 
in the Netherlands, Norway, and Scotland. Of the 1,321,020 barrels received during 
the ten years ending June 30, 1898, 377,480 barrels came from the Netherlands, 231,098 
larrels from Norway and Sweden, and 111,198 barrels from Scotland. 

The Holland herring are the most popular of those received in the United States, 
and the demand for them is constantly increasing. The tirst of the Holland herring 
arrive here in June. These are known as "matties," having small roe or milt. 
The "vol" herring, which have the roes fully developed, arrive usually about the 
latter part of July. The trade becomes brisk toward the end of August and continues 
until near the end of November. Tliere is also considerable demand during February, 
March, and April, and usually all are sold before the 1st of June. The great bulk of 
the receipts, probably four fifths, are in suiall liegs, containing from 45 to 55 herring, 
about loi pounds of fish. These kegs are made of hard wood and measure 9J inches 
in height on the outside, 7f inches at the bilge inside, and 7 inches at the ends inside, 
with staves and bottoms ^ incli in thickness. At the top of the keg tlie staves are 
slanted oft" at the ends, but at the bottom they are of the same thickness out to the 
ends. They are bound with C, 8, 14, or 10 hoops, but more frequently with 6 or 8. 
When only G hoops are used the two end ones are usually of galvanized iron and the 
others of willow or similar material. On the head of the keg is branded the description 
of the contents, with some distinctive trademark. 

In addition to the kegs, many Holland herring are received in barrels, containing 
from 242 to 254 jjounds of fish, exclusive of the pickle. A few half-barrels and quarter 
barrels are also received, but they do not take so well as the barrels and the sixteenths. 

The price ranges from 45 to 75 cents per keg and $7 to $11 per barrel. Packages 
containing "milkers."' or milt herring oidy, usually sell for 10 to 15 cents more per keg 
and from $1 to $2 more i)er barrel than those containing mixed herring. 



PRESEKVATION OF FISHERY PRODIH'TS FOR FOOD. 



441 



The imports of Scotch herring have increased considerably during recent years, 
from 180 barrels in 1885 to 3:2,03(i in 1898, most of which are received at the port of 
New York. A few years ago they usually sold for somewhat less than the Holland 
herring, but during the past two or three years they have sold for $2 to li more j)er 
barrel. These are also packed in small kegs, but the keg trade is not so extensive 
as in case of the Holland herring. The consumption of Norwegian herring is also 
increasing. Practically all the Norwegian and Scotch herring are sold in barrels, the 
former containing 400 to 800 tish or 221 pounds, and the latter i'rom .'^.JO to 700 fish or 
250 pounds, exclusive of the i)ickle. The demand for these is greatest from September 
to November and from February to April. 

Nearly all the receipts are on consignment, the consignee forwarding the account 
and remittance as soon as tlie herring are sold, receiving 5 per cent commission there- 
for. The expense of handling foreign herring at New York City approximates $2.45 
per barrel, made up as follows : Duty (at J cent per pound), $1.25; brokerage, 25 cents; 
cartage, 20 cents; clearance, cooperage, storage, insurance, etc., .30 cents, and commis- 
sion, at 5 per cent, 45 cents. The following summary shows the ruling prices during 
October, 1898, for the various classes of foreign herring in the New York market: 



Description. 


Number 
to barrel. 


Number 
to keg. 


Half-barrels, 
price. 


Barrels, 
price. 


Holland herring: 




52 to 54 
62 to 65 


$4. 00 to $4. 50 

4. 75 to 5, 00 • 

5. 00 to 5. 25 
4. 75 tn 5. 00 
4. 50 to 5.00 


$7. 25 to $7. 50 

8. 25 to 8. 50 

9. 00 to 9. 50 

9.00 
9. 00 to 9. 50 
8. 25 to 8.50 

10.50 
8.50 

10.00 
9.50 
7.00 
6.00 
0.00 






Scotch herring: 

Large fulls, E. C 

Fulls.E.C 


550 to 675 
050 to 750 
500 to 550 
300 to 350 

425 to 475 
550 to 600 
7U0 to 800 
800 to 900 




Lar<'o fiilla W C 








Nor\vegt:in herring: 

K. Iv. K. K 






K K K 






K K 






K 












I'.rllv I'Uta 








Bristling 


















FOREIGN METHODS OF OUBING HERRING. 

The importance of improvement in our methods of pickling herring is sufficient 
reason for introducing in this connection some notes on the methods of curing herring 
in foreign countries. Mr. Adolph Nielsen, who has had considerable experience with the 
various methods in use, furnishes the following accounts of the processes of pickling 
herring in Scotland, Norway, and the Netherlands: 

THE SCOTCH CURE OF HERRING. 

As soon .as tlie lieiring is landed aud sprinlcled witli salt the gibbing and cutting take place. 
Tliis is performed in the following manner: The herring i.s held in the left hand, stomach up, in such 
way that tlie head reaches beyoud the thumb anil forefinger (index). With the other hand a small 
straight-edged aud sharp-pointed knife is puslied in .just below the gill lid on that side of the herriug 
that shows toward the right hand and forced right through the throat, close to the neck bone, so that 
the point of the knife conies well out on the other side. The forefinger is then jiressed against the 
he.ad aud the thumb across the pectoral fins. A little cut with the knife is first made down in the 
direction of the tail, after which it is given a twi.st and a, cut made close up tinder the pectoral fins. 
The throat is grasped between the index and middle finger (on the right hand), with a smart jerk, 
the intestiuals ( stomach, crown gut, liver, ;(ud heart), aloug with the gills and pectoral fins, .are torn 
out, leaving only the milt or roe to remain in the herring. When the herring is intended for export 
to Contiueiitiil markets the crown gut is often allowed to remain. 

Another way of gutting herring, when these lormerly have been clipped, is to jiut the thumb 



442 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

behind the gills and with a jerk from the top and downwards break the gills loose from the head; 
when thfse are thou taken out the o-sophagns (gullet) and the stomach follow, because all these are 
cohesive; but this way is seldom iu use anywhere else than iu souio cases in Norway. 

Accordiug as the herring are gibbed and gutted they iire sorted iu baskets and put into the 
sousing tubs, where they are rolled in suiall Liverpool salt before beiug packed in barrels, gmierally 
made of birch. In these the herring are i)acked fully on their backs, with a small platcliil of salt 
sprinkled over each layer of fish. The oue layer of herring is put across the other the xvliole barrel 
through, .and e.ieh layer furuishi^l with two "he.adherrings," put on their sides. The barrels are 
tilled uutil a couple layers of fish extend above the chime or top, and covered with wooden covers made 
for that purpose. In this way they remain two or three days, .after which time, when the herring has 
settled, the barrels .are filled up .again with fish from the same packing, headed up, and ])ut down on 
their sides. Every secouil d.ay, as a rule, the barrels are given a little turn around until the last 
packing (bung packing) takes place. A lookout is during this time kept upon the barrels, that 
none of them are le.akiug. Iu order to obtain the official crown brand the herring must have beeu in 
salt at least ten days, exclusive of tlie first-day packing. AVheu the barrels, after such time or later 
on, are going to be made ready for shipment, the pickle is drawn oft" tlirough the hungholes and these 
plugged up; the barrels are then opened and more herriug of the same packing pre.ssed into the 
barrels, either by means of a common press or by pressing the herriugs down either by hand or by 
trampling them down after a small barrel head has been placed ou top of the herring. Care is in the 
meantime taken thiit the herring is not pressed so tight that no room is left for the pickle. The object 
with this last ami tight packing is to i)revent the herring from beiug shaken about in the barrels 
during the time of conxeyance and to save the recipient from the trouble of lepacking the barrels 
after they hiive reached their place of destination. After a sufficient quantity of herriug is pres.sed 
into the barrels, they are he.aded up and filled tlirough the buughole with the same pickle that was 
dr.awn oft' formerly, after beiug strained. The buugs are then put iu tight, the hoops driven home, 
and the barrels blowu; after they are joined tight the uppermost hoop is nailed fast, the blowhole 
stopped up, and they are in a condition re.ady for shipment. If the herriug is to be exported to 
countries outside the European Continent or to hot climates, it is generally, when the bung packing 
takes place, emjitied out of the barrels altogether; the crown gut is removed if it has been left, and 
the herring rinsed in clean water and repacked with coarse Liverpool salt. In place of using the 
original pickle, the barrels are then filled with new pickle made of clean salt. All these barrels are 
full-banded and furuished with a 1-inch-wide iron hoop ou each end. In order to obtain the official 
crown brand, such barrels should contain no less than 212 pounds of herriug, exclusive of salt and 
pickle. A good many of the Scotch herring are .also packed in half-barrels. 

The system of culling, along with the offici.al crown mark on all exported herring barrels, has 
contributed more to the good reputation the Scotch herrings have gaiued iu the continental markets 
than many may imagine. The dealers, on reception of S<'otch herring with the crown brand, are 
satisfied that the barrels really contain what tliey are branded for iu regard to quality and weight, 
and this has given them such confidence in the Scotch herring that these are received and approved 
of without even being opened, while the Norwegian herring barrels, since the official branding was 
abolished iu 1851, must be opened aud repacked before the recipient can sell them, which often causes 
a good deal of inconvenience. The Scotch herring are sorted and branded accordiug to the treat- 
ment or cure and the development of the sexual organs. 

Crown P, Full Brand: Barrels obtaining this brand must contain all fine, well-cured, large, 
full herring, and not mixed with herring of a poorer quality, nor with spent herriug, nor matties, 
which have not got their roe or milt fully developed. 

Crown r, Matties Brand: Barrels with this brand must contain fine, rich herring, with small milt 
or roe, must be well cured, and not mixed with full, spent, broken, or dismembered herring. 

Crotvn r, Spent Brand: Barrels with this brand should contain spent herriug (herring with 
their sexual organs more or less collapsed after spawning), properly gibbed and cured, and all full 
herring, matties, brokeu or dismembered herring sorted out. 

Croion P, Mixed Brand: This brand is used for mixed herring (such herriug as can not be sorted 
as full, matties or spent). The mixed herriug should also be properly gibhed, packed, and cured, 
and no dismembered herring be packed in the barrels. 

Croicn PP, Repacled Urand : Barrels with this brand .should coutain herring which have been in 
salt at least ten days, exclusive of the day of packing aud the day of repacking and br.auding. 
Further, this herring should, when they are repacked, be emptied out of the barrels in which they 
were first packed or cured, the crown gut be removed, and the herring be rinsed and repacked, 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 443 

with sufficient salt, in tlie same barrels, ami supplied with new, strong pickle made of clean salt. 
The barrels should be full-branded and furnished with a 1-inch wide iron hoop on each end. 

[.ozenije Brand: This brand is used for herring which formerly have been bung-packed and 
branded but afterwards repacked in the same way as is required in order to obtain the repacked 
brand. The lozenge is branded just below the crown brand. lu ease new barrels are employed, they 
are branded with the crown brand and thi^ lozenge in the same way. 

THE DUTCH CUUE OF HERKING. 

The most of the Dutch herring are caught at sea in drift-nets and cured on board of the vessels. 
If there is a chance, the dressing (gibbing and cutting) takes place according as the nets are hauled 
on board and the herring picked out of them. The Dutch way of gibbing and cutting herring is about 
the same as the Scotch; the only ditference is that the crown gut is alloweihto remain in the herring 
and it is considered that the fat which is attached to tliis gives the herring a nice flavor. After the 
knife is put through the throat the cut is at once made up toward the pectoral fins; thus the opening 
is made smaller than in the Scotch herring. 

According as the herrings are dressed they are sorted in baskets, and from these about 200 at a 
time are put into large trays tilled with tine Lisbon or St. Ybes salt and rolled in this salt. After 
the herring is carefully and well rolled in the salt it is packed in barrels, back down, the same way 
as the Scotch, with Lisbon salt sprinkled on the top of each layer of fi.sh When the whole catch is 
salted down a bucket of hlood-pickle (made of sea water and the intestines from the dressing) is put 
over the herring, and the barrels headed and put down in the vessel's hold. 

The object of heading up the barrels so soon is to prevent the herring from being affected by 
the air. lu this state the barrels remain for from six to ten days, when they are taken up and 
filled with herring of the same packing, after the pickle is first drawn. This filling or sea-packing is 
pretty compact, and it takes about four barrels to fill three of them. After the barrels are filled, the 
original pickle, after being strained, is put over the herring, and the barrels headed up and blown, 
and if found tight, put back into the hold of the vessel. It is considered of importance not to under- 
take the filling of the barrels too irarly, as the herring in such cases will be shriveled; but, on the 
other hand, it should not be performed too late, because if so the herrings, by being tossed abont in 
the pickle while the vessel is rolling in the sea, lose a great deal of their scales. After the vessels 
arrive home, the barrels are again filled with herring and supplied with the original pickle. In this 
last filling, it is generally estimated that thirteen barrels of herring in a fit state for shipment are 
obtained from fourteen sea-packed barrels. A large quantity of herring is also rej^acked in small 
kegs — one-sixteenth part of a barrel — and containing from 45 to 50 herrings. This is especially for 
the American markets. A smaller <juantity is also packed in half-barrels, but these do not take very 
well. A Dutch barrel of full, selected herring, with milt and roe, contains about 800 herrings, which 
weigh from 110 to 115 kilograms (242.2 to 254.6 pounds) net, exclusive of salt and pickle. 

Dutili herrings arc sorted, according to the development of the sexual organs, in four qualities: 
Full herring (vol herring, branded VOL) ; matties (maatjis, branded M) ; spent herring (Ijlen, branded 
IJ or IJLE), and herring which have recently spawned (Ruit, branded KZ). Besides, herrings which 
have not bien packed before the day after they were caught are Ijrandcd O. Each of the first three 
brands are again sorted in three or more (|ualities, and branded Ko. 1, 2, and 3. All herring which on 
account of so large a catch could not be cured the same day, but had to be left over a night before 
they were packed, together with torn bellies, or chafed herring, are assorted according to quality, as 
No. 3, while all herring in good condition and free from faults, as No. 1 and No. 2, according to i[uality 
and treatment. Distinction is also nuide between herring caught in the open sea, near the coast, and 
in the Zuider Sea; and the barrels are generally furnished with a mark signifying the place and the 
year in which the herrings were caught. Before the official system of culling was abolished, in the 
year 1878, this was branded on the bilge of the barrels (or if the herring were packed in smaller 
packages on the most C(mvenient place) by the culler in such manner that a royal crown was brandeil 
in the middle, and the other directions in letters on either side of the crown. 

THE NOHWEGIAN CURE OF HERRING. 

The largest quantity of herring in Norway is caught in the fjords by seines, and kept barred 
until what food the herring may contain is worked out in the natural way before they are taken up, 
dressed, and salted. As a rule the herring are salted in the vicinity of the places when' they are 
caught, so that they can be put in salt almost alive, whicli is of the utmost importance in order 
to obtain a good article. In this way they have an advantage over the Scotch, who have to go far 



444 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

ott' the coast for their herring and cau not get thetn in salt before they reach the shore, which often 
takes a long time. They have an advantage over the Dutch, because, although they salt their 
herring on hoard of their vessels soon after they are caught, still tliey may have been dead several 
hours in the nits before they are hauled on board, and at all events none of the herring taken lu 
drift-nets or other nets can be deprived fully of the injurious food they may contain, as they can 
when barred in a seine. When brought to the shore or salting places from the seine the herrinii-s 
are gibbed in this way: That a triangular piece of the throat, large enough to admit the licart and 
the pectoral llns to be removed, is cut out by me.ans of scissors made for that purpose, or l)y a small 
knife (some also use the fingers). This cut should l)e ni.ide deep enough to divide the large blood 
veins, situated close to the nock bone, in order to remove the blood they contain. Sometimes, also 
the gills are removed, especially on the full herring caught in the spring. 

Generally a large enough crew is emjUoyed to admit the gibbing and the salting to take place at 
the one time. On account of the herring caught in seines being always mixed, every gibber has got 
placed before him or her so many barrels or tubs as the herring are to be sorted in (I'rom three to five) ; 
and, according as they are gibbed, every herring is also at the same time, by the gibber, sorted and 
placed in the various barrels or tubs to which t)-ey belong. The Salter then takes the herring and 
packs them in new barrels, which lately have been soaked in sea water, slantwise on their back, with 
one-fourth barrel of St. Ybes salt to 1 barrel of herring. The herring are packed loosely, one lies 
across the other the whole barrel through. The uppermost layers .are packed sometimes slantwise 
back up. Some packers put from 1^ to 2 gallons of pickle (made of one-fourth barrel of salt to 1 
barrel of sea. water) on the Iierring soon after it is salted, and head up the barrels immediately. 
Others, again, let the barrels remain unhe.aded for one day befoie they fill them with pickle. Hefore 
the b.arrels are headed up a layer or two of Iierring are generally put into the barrels in order to fill 
up the empty room caused by tlie shrinking of the lierriugs. By putting the pickle on the herring 
soon after they .are packed the salt dissolves quicker and saturates the herring more speedily, so that 
the contents of the stomach (provided the food is liberated) hardly has any injurious eft'ects upon 
the durability of the herring. After the b.arrels .are headed up they .are broached in the head and 
blown into by means of a lirass pipe containing a valve, which is put down in the hole, and, if found 
tight, the hole is plugged up as soon as the air has escaped; if not, they are made tight in the ])laces 
where they are leaky, and blown over again before they are stowed down on board the vessels. 

After reaching the port of shipment and before being exported the herring are repacked and the 
barrels filled with the original pickle which was formed first; and if this does not hold out, new 
pickle is made to supply what is wanting. As a rule the herring are rep.acked in such a w.iy that out 
of 4 barrels salted in the fishing-places from '.ii to 3i barrels of herring are obtained when packed for 
shipment. They never, as a rule, pack their herring as light as the Scotch or Dutch do, except the 
herring is specially to be put up in such style. 

The following notes on i)ickling Iierring are from Nielsen's Eeport on the (Jure 
of Herring: 

Qualities of the good hcrrixfi. .-C'oncerning the nature of the fresh herring, it is required, in order 
to obtain a good article, that the herring also possess certain qualifications, such as sufficient size and 
maturity, fleshiness, and fatness. A lean, dry, dismembered or half-rotten herring can never give a 
good article, even if it is cured ever so well. A small herring, which h.as not reached the full state 
of maturity, fetches only small prices in the markets. Of much importance is also the development 
of the sexual organs. If these are in a far advanced stiite, the herring loses in fatness and flavor. 
These should be firm and the whole flesh penetrated with a certain quantity of fat. Large amounts 
of fat around the blind-gut is a sign of the herring being fat right through the flesh. As a rule, 
ocean herring (such herring as i)ass most of the time in the ocean, and only approach the coast for 
reproductive jiurposes) are considered superior to the herring that keep themselves close to the coast 
or in the bays all the time. Of these herring, again, those which are caught in deep water are better 
than those caught in shoal water. A first-class h<'rriug is known by its small head, short and plnmp 
lioily ; is broad across the back, and plump toward the tail, and has got a great depth from the back 
to the abdomen, which gives this well-rounded shape. 

Imporianie of early satiin;/. — In order to obtain a good article of salt-cured herring it is necessary 
that the herring be liberated from its food and [lut in s.alt as soon as possible after heing brought out 
from the water. Even if the quality is ever so fine, a good article can never be had if it ia not 
properly treated during the whole cure. The .Scotch herring can not get the official crown brand 



PRESERVATION OF FISHEHY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 445 

except they are Baited at least tweuty-foui- liunrs after being biougbt out from the sea. As a rule tlio 
cnrers do not care about herring which is more than twenty-four hours out of the sea before they are 
landed, and only take those at a low ligure. In Holland, even, a distinction is made between herring 
which are taken out first and those which are taken last from the nets. The cure of herring on 
board the fishing crafts commences, therefore, if circumstances allow, soon after the nets are hauled 
ill. To leave the herring exposed to the hot sun while being conveyed to the salting-place, or to leave 
tlie herring in the nets until the shore is readied, if the catch has taken place a long distance off the 
shore, is objectionable. An old law in Norway, of 1775, even prohibited people from t.aking such 
herring from their seines in the summer time before 10 o'clock in the evening and after 5 o'clock in 
the morning, if it was going to be ^altc■d for export. 

Beat salt for heirinij. — In regard to what kind of salt is the most suitable for salting herring, it is 
difficult to give any one sort the preference. The choice of salt depends much upon how the herring 
is going to be cnred, and upon the size and quality. The main thing is that the salt is clean, and that 
it is used in proper ([uantities. Fine and watery salt melts quicker, but gives weaker pickle. In 
cases where it is of importance to form jiickle speedily, fine salt is preferable, while coarse salt is 
better for use in filling and repacking, or when the herring is intended for export to hot climate, or 
to be kept in stock for any length of time. The Scotch curers use Liverpool salt, the Dutch light 
Cadiz or Lisbon suit, while the Norwegians use St. Ybes salt. It is of much importance, as formerly 
stated, to put the herring in salt as quick as possible, if a first-class article shall be obtained. For 
this reason the Scotch, as the herring is landed, sprinkle it heavily with salt in bins or vessels made 
for that purpose, before it is gibbed and gutted, (ienerally they use 1 barrel of Lisbon or coarse 
Liverpool salt (or sometimes both mixed) to about 10 barrels of herring. By this means the herring 
keep their scales better and brighter, and can also he handled better and (juicker when they are 
afterwaids gibbed and gutted. The Hollanders roll their herrings in trays filled with fine Liverpool 
or St. Ybes salt as soon as they are gibbed and gutted, before they pack them in barrels; and this 
work is done very precisely. In Norway no sprinkling with salt, as a rule, is used before the 
herrings are gilibed or packed in barrels, but instead thereof they have to use more salt in packing 
than tlie Scotch and Dutch. The sprinkling of herring with salt as soon as they are landed or 
brought on board of the vessels is considered also to improve the flavor of them very much. 

I'nckimi herriny. — In packing the herring in barrels it is re';ommeudable not to pack them too 
tight belbre they have shrunk in the salt, and also to pack herring of the same size and quality right 
through the whole l):irrel. The packing is performed difierently among dirterent nations. In Norway 
the herrings are packed slantwise on their back, wliile the Scotch and Hollanders pack them fully on 
their back. By this last mode (which no doubt is the best) the herring get a more round and thick 
appearance in the jiaek; and it has also this advantage, that the pickle has got a better chance to get 
in and saturate through the abdominal cavity of the gutted htrring. After the herring has shrunk in 
the salt the barrels are filled U]> again and put away, but care is taken that the herring is not packed 
too hard. As long as the barnds are left to remain still there is no need (jf hard packing, but when 
they are to be shipped it is recoiiimendable to repack the herring so tight that they do not move about, 
even if the barrels are handled ever so roughly, so that the receiver m.ay be exempted from filling the 
barrels again after they have reached their place of destination. 

Herrinij barrels. — The quality of li;irrels used for salting herring in is of much importance in 
order to obtain a. desirable product. If too soft wood is employed, the pickle will work through the 
staves, the herring become dry, and l)e ilamai;ed within a short time. Auioug the foliferons wood in 
Europe the populns (poplar) is considered least answerable, and among the conifers the sjiruce or fir 
are less suitable than the red pine wood, because the former is generally knotty and more ready to get 
saturated with pickle or water. Good hard and clean spruce, which is cut fresh and has not been 
soaked in water, may compete with the pine when it gets properly seasoned. The Hollanders use 
mostly barrels made of oak; the Scotch use barrels of birch or beech, aiul the Norwegians use barrels 
of spruce and red pine wood. Staves made of birch are brittle and apt to twist. In Scotland the 
regulations for making herring barrels are that the staves shall be not less than half an inch thick and 
not wider than 6 inches, except the oak staves, which may be 7 iuches wide, and that the bottoms should 
be at least of the same thickness as the staves, and uoue of the pieces of which it consists be made 
wider than 8 inches. Thc^ usual thickness of the staves in the Scotch herring barrels are from nine- 
sixteenths to ten-sixteenths of an inch, and the bottoms are generally made three-fourths of an inch 
thick. In Holland there was a law passed enacting that a herring barrel slnuilil be manufactured of 
at least 13 staves (which makes every stave on an average 5^ inch wide), and that no stave should be 



446 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

less than three-eighths of an inch in thickness. In Norvray the staves, as a rule, are made five-eighths 
inch thick, and the barrels are mostly made by machinery. Scotch barrels are generally full banded 
for export to hot climates in the summer time. They are also furnished with an iron hoop on each end. 
The Dutch barrels are furnished with 18 to 20 hoops, divided 5 or G on each end and 4 on each side of 
the middle, while the Norwegians have only 12 to 16, divided .3 and 3 or 4 and 4. 

In Norway a movement has been made lately to get a law according to which all barrels for 
shipment of herring shouhl be manufactured of a certain kind of wood and of certain dimensions, but, 
so far as I am aware, such act has not been passed yet. If the barrels are made of fat spiucc or red 
pine, and also of oak, the herring will take a Havor from the barrels, which some people like very 
much, but others, again, do not care for. In Scotland it was prohibited to salt herring in barrels 
manufactured of red pine until the year 1874, and lor many years back a similar act or law existed in 
Norway; but this law was repealed again on account of the Russians, who consumed large (luantities 
of salted herring, and valued the Norway cure very much on account of the resinous taste the herring 
got from the red pine barrels. Some people, again, value the Dutch herring very much on account of 
the taste or flavor they receive from the barrels. To keep the barrels from shrinking, it is recommended 
to put a little pickle in them while they are kept in stock. 

Ill 188!) the govenijueiit of tlie Dominion of Canada appointed delegates to visit 
Scotland and the Netherlands for the purpose of studying- their methods of curing 
herring. After making a careful investigation they summed up their conclusions in 
part as follows: 

We consider the Scotch system of treating herring, as an article of commerce, to be as perfect 
as any system can be when honestly carried out in all its integrity, and that improvements in the 
herring industry of Canada can saf'elj' be made after the Scotch mod<'I, so far as our somewhat dirt'ercnt 
ciroumstances may permit. In one most important respect the Scotch fishermen have an immense 
advantage over the Canadian fisherman, and that is in having all the curing and 2)ackiug of hirrings 
performed by a distinct and independent class of merchants known as fish-curers. We have seen that 
the herring industry of Scotland never amounted to anything— never prospered — until an enterprising 
and energetic body of men came forward and assumed the position of fish-curers, taking that part 
of the business entirely out of the hands of the fishermen, to the great relief of the latter, and the 
promotion of this important business. In order, therefore, to place this industry in Canada upon a 
satisfactory and permanent basis we are of opinion — 

(1) That while some slight degree of improvement in the details of curing and packing herrings 
may be at once attained by changes in the pre.sent methods, yet no real permanent improvement can 
take place, nor can the herring industry in Canada be placed upon a satisfactory commercial basis 
until the fisherman ceases to be his own fish-curer, and until the business of curing is taken in hand 
by a class of merchant fish-curers, as in Scotland — men of energy, business experience, and capital, 
witli all the necessary appliances to carry on the business on fixed principles and in accordance with 
such regulations as may be jironiulgated for the lienefit of the trade from time to time. In Scotland 
nearly all tlie curers devote their whole time to the supervision of their own curing operations. In 
former times if a fish-curer did not so superintend his own curing business he made arrangements 
with a master cooper to furnish the barrels, and generally to suiierintciul the cure and putting up, 
guarant(^eing that the same would pass the Crown brand; or he hired jiuuneymen coopers and a 
foreuuin, laid in materials for the manufacture of barrels, and the foreman attended to the curing ior 
the nuirket. This was the nu'thod to a great extent in Scotland .55 years .igo, and to some extent still. 

When a fisherman cures his own fish, it is done with the least possible laljor and cost, and once they 
pass into the hands of the merchant or trader, paying up so much of his indebtedness to the former, he 
feels no more interest in the matter. But it is difi'erent with the merchant or curer; his cai>ital, his 
credit, and his good name are at stake, and unless his fish are properly cured he will be the loser. 
Thus the strongest of all motives, self-interest, would induce him to cure and put up for market an 
article calculated to render a return for his outlay. 

(3) The barrel. — That the present Canadian l)arrel, licing too weak to stand the rough handling 
to which it is exposed on the railways in transportation, should be greatly improved. We think the 
jpresent capacity of the barrel should be retained; that it should contain not less than 200 pounds of 



PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOn. 447 

herriiijjs, exclusive of salt; that it should be made of stro]i{;cr material ; that the staves should be of 
hard wood wherever possible, and that if spruce is permitted to be used, the staves should be thicker 
aud stronger than the present stave. Fir and pine should be prohibited. The rule in Scotland has 
been that the barrel might be made of any kind of wood, fir excepted. It seems very probable that 
a fir or pine barrel may ''sour" fish or other auimal food packed in it for the first time. If a new 
pine barrel or cask be filled full of pure water and covered up aud allowc 1 to stand for some weeks 
there will be formed in the water a pretty firm gclatiuous substance, which, if allowed to remain for 
some time, becomes very ofieusive, as has been the case often in reg.ird to i)ipes made of tamarac and 
pine used for conveying water underground, where freiiueutly pipes with a 3-inch bore have been 
nearly clogged up from end to eud with this oHensive matter. If cleaned out, however, and the 
pipes relaid, the gelatinous substance will not again form. 

It is universally conceded that oak barrels are the best of all, and, where procurable, the Dutch 
use no other kind. The preseut barrel wo think, after suHicieut notice, should be proaibited. We 
are of opinion that a little more bilge would add to the strength of the barrel. The hoops should 
be of better quality than they are now and there should be more of them; and all barrels intended 
for transportation beyoud the province where the fish are put up should have at least one iron hoop 
at the top; and should the barrel be of spruce or Norway larch, then, iu addition to a thicker stave, 
there should be au iron hoop at each end. If, however, liard wood staves can be procured iu sufficient 
quantity, we think that soft-wood barrels should not be allowed. The knot of the hoop should be 
longer than it is in the case of the preseut hoop, to prevent it suddeuly springing off. There shonld 
be iu the side of the barrel, above the bottom hoops, 15 or 16 inches from bottom, a buughole about 
1 inch in diameter, with well-fitting bung, and the usual rule as to crossing the heads should he 
observed. The new standard barrel, when decided upon, should be made a legal standard by act of 
Parliament, as is intended to bo done in Britain at the next session of the Imperial Parliament. 
There shonld also be a legalized half-barrel built of the same material aud iu proportion to the 
size of material used iu the large barrels. 

(4) Smiill paclcages.—We are of opinion that in addition to the barrel aud half-barrel, there 
should be established a grade of small packages in which to put up repacked herrings, after the man- 
ner of the Dutch and Germans; that these packages or kegs should be integral parts of the large barrels, 
say one-fonrth, one-eighth, aud one-tenth parts of the full-sized barrels. We believe that kegs iu 
every way suitable for this purpose may be procured in Canada. A gentleman largely interested iu 
the sugar-refining business told us that he gets a very neat, small keg or kit, for holding siruji, made in 
Ontario, at reasonable prices, and he considers that the small herring keg can be made here as well and 
nearly as cheaply as in Hollatul. If so, then a very great step is assured toward the establishment of 
what we believe to be a nu)st iniportaut and profitable branch of the herring industry of the Dominion. 

We are of opinion that the very first nioM'uient toward improvement in this industry shonld be 
ill the direction of improving the herring barrel and cou.se(iucut discouragement to the manufacture 
of the present barrel. 

As already stated, there can be no doubt that a very large business can be done in the small 
package line, if properly g(uui into and taken hold of with energy aud iu a business manner. Canada 
should be able to largely supply the ileinand on this Continent for hen iug put up in this way. 

(5) Curing. — That next in importance to the catching of the herring is the proper curing of them. 
This process commences in having the salt brought into contac't with the herring as soon as caught; 
and if it could be done at sea as soon as the herring come out of the water, so much the better and so 
much more thorough the cure. All the printed evidence, all the experience of the Dutch, the Yar- 
mouth fishermen, and others, and all that we heard ou the subject goes to confirm this. If attention 
to this preliminary salting be necessary, and so salutary in results iu Hritain, how mueh nmre neces- 
sary is it in the maritime provinces, where the temperature iu summer is so much higlier? In order, 
therefore, to preserve the herring from ineijjient taint and to retain all the delicate llavor and natural 
excellence of the fish, it is absolutely necessary that at the earliest possible monu:nt the curing 
process shall eommence, ami that the herring be scrupulously shaded and sheltered from the damaging 
etfects of the sun throughout all the stages of gutting, curing, packing, etc. This is most important 
because injury caused to the herring by exposure to the sun can never be remedied. The injury 
sustiiined liy hiMring iu this way is beyond the jiowerof man to iiMiiedy. Inordinate quantities of salt, 
soaking and washing iu water )iiay cover U[i tlje damage ilone and pi'eveiil further taint, but the lost 



448 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

excellence of the fish can never be restored. There can be no doubt that the great bulk of the injury 
sustained by the herriug of the Maritime Provinces is caused in this way; and if this can be avoided 
in the future by the adoption of some feasible inexpensive measures to protect the herring from the 
sun, from the time of catch to the time of shipment, a great point will be gained and much done to 
redeem the character of the Canadian herrings. The next step in the curing process is the ''roosiug" 
of the herring after gutting and the proper salting of the fish when being packed. Should it happen 
that the preliminary salting can not be ettected before delivery, then the herring should be well 
sprinkled with salt during delivery. The western consumer is about tired of eatiug herrings, out of 
which all excellence has been extracted by soaking iu water and oversaltiug, and if these western 
markets are to be retained the quality of the fish must be improved, and that at once. 

(6) GuiliiKj. — That we consider the Scotch mode of gutting to be as good as any for all commer- 
cial purposes, and all that can be desired when properly carried out and the curing ]>ropcrly attended 
to. In Scotland the early lierrings are very fat, and are not branded. These are the herrings which 
are in such request by tlie wealthy families of Russia, and they are hurried over to Stettin for imme- 
diate sale and use. A fish-curer told us that some of these herrings sold in June, 1889, for £ 10 sterling 
($50) per barrel. There is no material difference in the mode of curing these herriugs. In Canada, 
however, it appears that in the case of fat herrings caught in July and August special treatment 
has been found necessary. Mr. Gordon, of Pictou, who has had much experience in the herriug 
busine.ss in Scotland and in Nova Scotia, says : 

"I beg to advert to the only additional detail, which, in my experience, I have discovered as 
applicable to the perfect cure of herriugs in tlie months of .Inly and August, on the coasts of Nova 
Scotia. Having engaj^ed on my own account iu a sailing vessel trading ou the coast of Nova Scotia 
and Cape Breton, and provided witli salt and barrels, I pieferred ]>nrchasiug the lierrings in their 
green state, and cured a few barrels after the Scotch manner. On examination of tho fish after being 
struck, 1 discovereil an incipient taint along the backbone of the fish, which would increase with 
age, so as to render them nnsuitable for a distant market in a tropical climate. I came to the 
conclusion that the taint was owing to excess of temperature here over that common on the Scottish 
coasts, and besides the herrings are larger and fatter in the months of .Inly ami .\ngust on this coast 
than on the coast of .Scotland. Thereafter I ripped with a sharp knife the belly of the Hsli, and 
filled the belly with salt, and immediately packed them in tight barrels, with one bushel of Liverpool 
salt to each barrel, and protected the barrels from sun and raiu." 

Another gentleman, referring to the same subject, says: "Herrings should be all opened with a 
knife .and filled with salt ; otherwise they can not be properly cured." This Latter statement, as apply- 
ing to all herrings, seems rather general. Mr. Conlon only rec(nnmend8 this treatment in the case 
of herrings caught in .Inly and August on the coast of Nova Scotia, when the fish are very fat. Even 
then it can hardly be possible that the belly of every herring need be filled with salt. To fill a herring 
with salt most cfiectually destroy the fiavor of the herring and leave it as innutritions as a piece of 
basswood. It may be, however, that some of these .Inly and August herrings may be utilized for the 
manufacture id' kip])ered herrings. In October, 1889, a very line and well-tlavorcd kipper, said to 
come from lialtimore, U. S., was for sale in Toronto at high prices. It was very fat. The "ciscoes" 
of Lake Ontario are very fat, fully one-fonrth or one-third oil, yet they make most delicious kippers, 
are in great demand, and sell at high prices. The "ciscoe" is a herring and is taken in deep water 
in the fall of the year. Many of them .are put up as bloaters. 

All of this shows how necessary it is that some one or more com|)eteut men, experts, technically 
and practically, iu all jiertainiug to the classification of herring, should full.v investigate all the 
different kinds of herrings on our Atlantic coasts, and decide upon the ilifferent modes of cure adapted 
to special kiuds of herrings in special localities and at special seasons of the year. 

(7) Bound or iingiiUed herrinys. — That between the mode above recommended by Mr. Gordon and 
the mode of putting up round or unguttcd herrings there must exist many degrees of difference. 
We have already referred to ungntted herring, and to the fact that the Scotch curers strongly disap- 
prove of packing nngutteil herriug, and expressed their surprise that any people of the present day 
would waste salt and time for such a purpose. In the case of the best packed herrings, if a stave 
breaks .and the brine runs ott', the herrings uiulergo very serious deterior.ition, but in the case of 
ungntted herrings, under similar lirenmstances, total destruction of the contents of the barrel would 
take place from the setting free of the eleuients of decomposition contained in the ungntted herring 
theretofore held in check by the preservative qualities of the salt and pickle. Round or ungntted 
herrings put on the market in any quantity can only do harm by damaging the character of the whole 
catch of any given locality. We therefore consider the putting up of all snch herring for commercial 
purposes should be strictly forbidden. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 449 

(17) TVashing of herring. — As stated elsewhere, the washinjj of herring before curing is not 
pr;ictii-eil in Scotland, and so far as we can learn never has been. The Scotch curcrs with wliom wo 
conversed on the subject were surprised to hear of herring in Canada being washed before curing. 
They conhl hardly believe such a practice possible. To show what ha.s been the practice in the 
Maritime Provinces in time past, we quote from the answer of Mr. Gordon, Pictou, to question No. 4, 
in 1869. He says : 

"It is the universal practice of Nova Scotia iishermen to steep the fish for lionrs before salting 
down, and expose them to the action of the sun during the hottest period of the season until the 
water becomes warm, under the erroneous impression that they are thus benefited by the extraction 
of the Idood. Under this treatment herring part with their .scales and juice, and are deprived of that 
flavor peculiar to herring properly cured. IJesides the body of the fish thus saturated with water is 
ren<lered tasteless, brittle, and short, and not calculated to turn out satisfactorily at the end of a long 
.sea voyage. The Scotch cnrers take every precaution to keep the herring from contact with water 
before and after salting. Salt the fish in their blood and the salt will extract the blood." 

Now, it must be quite clear to every man who realizes the importance of retaining intact all those 
<iualities of substance and flavor which render the herring so valuable as a wholesome and pleasant 
article of food, and which are so highly prized in Europe as already stated, that there could be no 
more eflectn.al mode devised or adopted for the total destruction of all those qualities than the mode 
above described by Mr. Gordon. What would be thought of any man or boily of men who should 
treat any kind of animal flesh, beef or pork for instance, in such a manner, and what would be 
thought of any one who would subject those articles of food to such treatment? Who would think 
of selling or buying meat so treated? Then, to cover up the damage done by the water soaking to the 
herring, inordinate quantities of salt are used, and this extracts any vestige of flavor the water may 
have left, and destroys all the nutritive qualities of the herring. 

Here we may be permitted to refer to another pernicions habit, already adverted to — the practice 
of putting brine on the newly packed herring, in addition to the salt in which they have been cnred. 
This practice is highly objectionable, and is one also th.it etiectu.ally destroys the good qualities of 
the herring in flavor and substance. This practice may arise from the custom of putting herring 
down in largo casks or vats, and then, after a time, repacking into the common tight herring barrel. 
Herring treated in this way can not be nuu-h better than those soaked for hours in warm water. 
The herring should bo packed in tight herring barrels in the first instance, and fully salted, when 
the necessary ([uantity of pickle will be formed from the dissolution of the saltcau.sed by the moisture 
in the fish. The addition of newly made pickle not only interferes with the curing process going on 
iu the barrel, but, as already stated, as effectually destroys the natural iiualities of the herring as 
soaking iu water, or the action of the sun's rays acting through the medium of water. We therefore 
consider that the practice of washing and soaking herring in water and of adding newly made pickle 
to newly packed herring should be strictly prohibited. 

Having already described the Scottish method of curing and packing herrings, and having 
expressed our opinion of that system as being entirely adapted to the curing of herrings on our Atlantic 
coasts, we feel convinced that its general adoption and its legal enforcement would, in a very shiu t 
time, give Canadian herrings a very high standard and character in the markets in which they are now 
held in very low estimation. We have given this subject our best consideration, and so convinced are 
we of the vital importance of proper curing and protection from sun and rain, that we would again 
urge that every diligence and care be exercised in these respects, as well as to the quality, selection, 
anil separation of the fish m the first instance. It is most desirable that the fish, especially during the 
liot season, should bo handled and shifted as little as possible, as every time they are turned over they 
part with a portion of the scales and liecome softer and softer, more flabby, and less ready to absorb 
the salt. 

In the matter of packing pickled herrings for the purpose of repacking into small packages, very 
great caro should be taken to have the fi.sh of the best quality in every respect. In Holland and Scot- 
laud, as we have shown, "fulls" and "crown fulls," the highest brands, are taken for this purpose. 
Tho repacking should be done well and neatly aud the kegs, as already stated, filled up with the brine 
from the large barrel out of which the fish has been taken. A slight sjirinkling of salt on the bottom 
of the keg and the top tier of the herring should be given. 

This branch of the business is worthy of the special consideration and effort of all who may 
engage in tho curing of herring. We know that in western Ontario there is now a demand for herring 
put up iu small packages, especially in the rural districts. It can readily l>n seen that in a cmmtry 
where there is so much beef and pork not many families will purchase whole barrels of herrings, while 
many would gladly purchase herrings in half-barrels, quarter-barrels, and the suuUler packages. 

r. 0. B.. 1898—29 



450 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

If the Dutch and Germans can afford to pay freight and shipping charges on herrings from Scot- 
land to Holland and Germany, unpack and repack into small packages, pay freight and shipping 
charges to New York, and sell these herrings in Quebec and Ontario, with a gnod margin of proHt, 
surely the herring traders of the Maritime Provinces should he able to supply herrings in this shape 
as good in quality, at lower i)rices, and with a better margin of prolit. By supplying a proper article 
this branch of the trade can bo increased immeasurably both in the Uni*ed States — the Western States 
especially — and in the inland provinces of the Dominion. 

BRINE-SALTED ALEWIVES OR RIVER HERRING. 

At various points aloug the Atlantic coast more or less alewives or river herring 
are brine-salted each year. They are prepared in greatest abundance in the tribu- 
taries of Chesapeake Bay and the coastal waters of North Carolina, wliere they are 
known only as herring, and also to a less extent in Maine and Massachusetts. At 
the head of Chesapeake Bay 30,000 barrels of herring are brine-salted annually, the 
number of flsh required for the pack a[)proximatiug 20,000,000. It is not unusual for 
300 or 400 barrels of pickled herring to be prepared as the result of a single haul of a 
seine, and 900 barrels were salted from one haul in 1893. The Chesapeake product is 
used mostly in the South, and is distributed princii^ally from Alexandria, Fredericks- 
burg, and Eichmoud. The alewives salted in New England are sold also through 
the South to some extent, but many of them are sent to the West Indies and South 
American countries. 

The methods of pickling river herring or alewives do not differ greatly from those 
applied to the sea herring on the New England coast, except that the market i)rice 
being lower necessitates that they should be prepared in a cheaper manner. The 
flavor of the alewife does not equal that of the sea herring, consequently there is 
little need for the nice discrimination required in case of the latter. Usually more 
salt is used in preserving them than for sea herring, and as a result they will keep 
much longer". Mr. Joseph Farris, of Eastport, Me., states: 

The chief dift'erence between the alewife and the herring in their capacity to keep fur a long time 
is that the alewife has less flavor than the herring. It is almost without tlavor. When the herring 
loses its flavor it becomes insipid and unpalatable, although it may be sound ; but so long as the alewife 
is sound it is as suitable tor food as at any time in its preserved condition. Alewives are sometimes 
kept on hand three years before being 8hii>ped, but if herring are not shipped within one year after 
being cured they are usually turned out of the barrels and used for fertilizer. 

The three principal classes of pickled alewives are, (1) "gross," the entire flsh 
being salted, corresponding to the round herring of the New England coast; (2) 
"split" or "cut," the head and viscera having been removed before salting; (3) "roes," 
the head being removed and the main gut drawn, but with the roe left in the fish. 
Each locality has its particular process of preparing the different grades. 

THE CHESAPEAKE PROCESS. 

The main object is to get the tish in salt as quickly as possible after they are 
removed from the water, but first the scales niust be removed and the fish washed. 
In case the seine is hauled on a sandy beach the movements of the dying fish about 
the sand are sufficient for removing the scales. But when the seine is hauled on a 
float, sand is sprinkled among the flsh, and a few Workmen, with higli rubber boots, 
shuffle about among them or they are drudged back and forth by means of a board 
attached to a long handle. The tish are next washed or rather rinsed to remove 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 451 

tlio. sand, loose scales, etc. This may lie arcoinplislicd liy dipping basketfuls of them 
in I lie water or by placing tlieni in a slat work box; and nuuiiug water through the 
mass, stirring them about in the meantime. Some curers scale and wash the fish at 
the same time, the fish being placed with sand in tubs of water and washed with 
brooms and then i)laced in halfbarrel tubs with holes in the bottom and sides for 
draining. About thirty years ago a machine was introduced for scaling fish which was 
used for a while, but is now discontinued. This consisted of a revolving lattice-work 
cylinder, having projecting metallic blades arranged iipon its inner periphery and 
sides. The cylinder was tilled with lish and revolved in a tank of water, the scales 
and slime falling through the lattice work and being carried away by the water. 

The salting is done in large vats or hogsheads, a convenient size for the vats being 
Hi feet in length, .") feet in width, and 2 feet deep, having capacity for about 32 barrels 
of fish. The bottom of these is first covered with 4 or 5 inches of very strong briue; 
then put in S or Id bariels of fish, stirring them about as they are being dumped in, 
and sprinkling more salt on top, following this up with fish and salt, with a heavy 
covering of salt on toj), G barrels of salt being used for 3li barrels of fish. In case the 
fish are being cured in hogsheads, the latter sboiild be half-filled with strong brine, 
then 4 half-barrel tubs of fish are dumped in, and these covered with half a barrel 
of Liverpool salt. IMore fish and salt are then added until the hogshead is filled. 
After remaining thus for twenty-four hours tlic herring are stirred with a "bieaker," 
a long stick or pole, flattened at the end, which is about .'*> inches in width, and twelve 
hours thereafter the fish are again stirred. In stirring or -'breaking"' them in the 
vats the breaker is run under the mass and then elevated to the surface, the object 
being to bring the lower layer of fish lo tlie surface and break up the masses which 
have become bunched together, so that the salting may be imiform throughout. 

After remaining over night the fish are "muddled," for the purpose of "pump- 
ing" or drawing forth the blood from the gills. This consists in pushing them back 
and forth with a rectangular board, 5 inches long and 3 inches wide, attached at the 
upper surface to a long handle, and is done twice daily for six or eight days. Each 
time the fish are "muddled,"' during the first four or five days, a quantity of salt is 
sprinkled over them, about 2 bushels being used the first day, and the quantity 
gradually decreased. 

At the end of seven or eight days, when the fish have become thoroughly struck 
or cured, they are removed with scoop nets and thrown on racks or stands having 
open-work bottoms, where they drain for one or two days before packing. When the 
herring are very abundant and the workmen exceedingly busy the fish sometimes 
remain on the racks for eight or ten days, but in such cases they are liable to rust. 
The fish are packed in barrels, with layers of salt between the layers of fish, from 2i 
to 3 pecks of salt being used for each barrel. Turk's Island salt is preferred, but 
Liverpool salt is used to a considerable extent. The former is larger-grained and 
does not dissolve so quickly, and it also makes the fish sweeter. The fish are placed' 
backs down, excepting the top layer, and those in each layer are placed at right 
angles to those in the preceding layer. When the barrel is filled it is allowed to 
settle for a day or two, then topiied up with another layer, strong brine added, and 
the barrel coopered and stored ready for market. The usual number of herring to 
each barrel is 40[l, and the weight is generally 100 pounds. 

The cost of preparing a barrel of liver herring in the Chesapeake region approx- 
imates $1.10, of which 35 cents represents the cost of salt, 50 cents the barrel, and 25 



452 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES F1!?H COMMISSION. 

cents the labor; the transportation to market costs about 10 cents per barrel, and the 
commission for selling is 10 cents, making a total cost of $1.30 for j)repariug and 
placing the fish on the market. In 1897 pickled river herring sold for about $1.40 per 
barrel, giving the preparer only 10 cents per barrel for the cost of the green fish, the 
superintendence, use of plant, and outlay of money. The average selling price in 
1808 was advanced to $2.19 per barrel, which gave a fair margin of ijrotit to the curer. 
Select "all roe" herring sell for about $G per barrel. 

The preparation of '-cut" or dressed river herring differs from the above mainly 
in that the heads and viscera are removed before the fish are washed preparatory to 
salting. In dressing, the fish are held in the left hand on a cutting board, with the 
back from the workman, and with one stroke of a knife held in the right hand the 
head is removed, and a continuation of the stroke cuts off the edge of the belly, laying 
the fish open from the napes to the vent, the viscera being exti'acted by a single move- 
ment of the fingers. The cutters in the Chesapeake fisheries receive usually 20 cents 
per 1,000, and an experienced workman can dress 12,000 to 20,000 per day. The fish 
are then washed and soaked, and in every other particular of salting and packing in 
the barrel the process is the same as in preparing the gross or round lierring. Less 
salt is required for cut herring, and the number of fish placed in a barrel is about 050, 
the weight being 160 pounds, as in case of gross herring. The price in 1897 a^jproxi- 
mated $2,15 per barrel, but in 1898 it was advanced to about $3 per barrel. 

THE NEW ENGLAND PROCESS. 

About $15,000 worth of pickled alewives are prepared annually on the Maine coast, 
mostly in the vicinity of Eastport. To Mr. Ansley Hall 1 am indebted for the following 
account of the methods in use at that point: 

For packing in Iiarrels the alewives are suited ri'und as they come from the water. The parties 
who handle them at Eastport nsually have an agent in the locality where the fish are caught who 
buys them from the fishermen and salts them temporarily in liarrcls to preserve them until thev 
reach Eastport, where they are taken out of thi' barrels and ])rop«'rly cured l>efore being finally 
packed for shipment. Occasionally the agent cures and packs them, but more frecjuently he does not. 
In some instances they are placed on board a transporting vessel wliich has been sent especially for 
them and are salted in tubs or hogsheads liy the crew. In such cases they are afterward cured and 
rejjacked in barrels by the dealer at Eastport. 

In salting them temporarily a small quantity of water is first put into the barrel or hogshead, 
about one bucket in a barrel and four or five buckets in a hogshead. The fish are then put in loosely 
in layers with salt between each layer and well covered with salt at the top. The quantity of salt 
required is about half a bushel to each barrel of fish. If they arc packed by au agent to be sent 
to Eastport for curing and repacking, barrels arc used. They are allowed to stand about four days 
before being headed up and the salt is renewed at the top of the barrels as fast as it dissolves. This 
first salting is done with Liverpool salt. The effect upon the fish is not to permauently cure them, 
but to strike them so they will keep in good condition for a short time. 

When they reach Eastport they are taken out of the barrels and i)iit into the large lierriug tanks, 
which hold about 4 hogsheads or 20 barrels each. Each layer of lish is covered with a layer of Cadiz 
salt and a heavy layer of salt at the top of the tank. In all, al)Out one-half bushel of salt is used to 
each baiTcl offish, or approximately 10 bushels to the tank. A strong pickle is then made and turned 
in. The pickle contains about 1 peck of Cadiz salt to the barrel of water, and .5 barrels of pickle 
are necessary to cover the fish in the tank. Boards are then laid across the tank, with heavy stones 
on them for weights to keep the fish down under the pickle. If the salt on top dissolves, more has 
to be added. The fish remain in the pickle al>out 8 weeks. They are then taken out and closely 
packed in lish barrels, 200 pounds of fish to the barrel A layer of Cadiz salt is placed between each 
layer offish and a heavy layer of salt at the top of the barrel. About 3 i)ecks of salt are used to each 



PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 453 

bnnel of fish. The barrels are lilloil above the cliiiues and have to stand two or tbreo days to settle 
before tUe head can be i>ut in. They are then headed and are ready for shipment. In some instances 
buyers desire pickle pnt in, .and if so. the barrels are turned over on their side and a l^-iuch lioL> 
bored in the bilge, through which pickle is turned in by means of a funnel until the barrel is 
completely filled. The hole is then plugged. If the liuyer does not request it no pickle is put in. It 
is generally considered that the lish will keep longer without the pickle than with it. It is claimed 
that the ])ick]e has a tendency to make the fish soft It is estimated that from the time the alewives 
are taker fresh until they are cured and packed for shipment about 3 bushels of salt are used to each 
barrel of lish. 

At Waldoboro they are not kept in pickle longer than two or three weeks at most, and are con- 
sidered in a suitable condition for packing after being in pickle eight or ten days. The quantity of 
salt used in curing and p.acking was estimated not to exceed 2 bushels to the barrel. 

PICKLING KIVER HERRING IN RUSSIA. 

The following rnetbod of pickling tbe large, fat river herring of Eussia prevails 
on tbe Caspian Sea, this description being furnished by Mr. Scbrikler, of Stettin, 
Germany: 

The lish are s.alted in layiis, in large reservoirs dug in the ground, protected by a wooden shed, 
and holding from GO to 100 barrels. No ]iickle is ponreil on them, as it forms of itself, after a few 
days. In the course of six or eight days the fish are taken out of the reservoirs and packed in barrels, 
a little salt being sprinkled over each layer. When about three-fourths of the barrel is filled, a mat or 
sack is laid over the fish, the packer gets into it and tramps them together, the vacant space is packed 
with tang [a seaweed], tbe end pressed in by means of a screw and closed. In the uppermost end 
a bunghole is made, through which is poured a quantity of new boiled pickle, ccmtaining from 20 to 25 
per cent of salt, the whole being then ready for the market. When the fish are to lie for an indefinite 
time, ice cellars are made, very conveniently fitted up, and the reservoirs dug beneath them. The 
Norwegian method, which is much superior, has been tried during the last year and is found to give 
good results. The salt used in tln^ (uuiug is obtained from salt lakes on the banks of the Vidga, and 
costs from 10 to 15 kopecks jier pood. It is found in great abundance, especially ou the banks of Lake 
Basknntschak. The barrels are made of lime wood, about three-quarters of an inch thick, and are 
fastened with 14 to 10 wooden or 4 iron hoops. When u.sed for sending a long distance they are made 
of o.ak, and it is ]iurposed to try birch- wood barrels, as it is thought that birch keeps the pickle better 
than lime wood. In size they are .a little larger than the Norwegian barrels, and contain about 400 
fish of averag(! size. A barrel with wooden hoops costs a ruble, iron hoops costing 10 to 15 kopecks 
more. 

BRINE-SALTED COD AND HADDOCK. 

The trade in brine-salted cod on the New England coast is small and is confined 
exclusively to the small fish, under IC inches sjilit, measured on the back of tbe fish 
from the hollow of tbe nape to the hollow of the tail. A few haddock are also pickled, 
but bake, i)ollock, and cusk are rarely placed on the market in this condition, except 
possibly a few barrels representing a surplus from the Fulton and other fresh-fish 
markets situated in places where it is not convenient to dry-salt the fish. In pickling 
cod or haddock the fish are dressed, split, washed, and salted in butts with about 2 
pecks of salt to the 100 pounds of fish, in the same manner as lias been heretofore 
noted in preparing dry-salted cod. When orders are received, the fish are removed 
from the butts, cleaned with brushes, and placed in tight barrels, 200 pounds to the 
barrel, face side up, except the top layer, which is placed back up, the fish being bent 
to follow the curve of the barrel, pressure being applied, if necessary, to place the 200 
pounds in the package. It is imjrortant that the fish be not repacked until thoroughly 
struck through, otherwise the flesh will be marked with yellow spots caused by contact 



454 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

of till' imperfectly ciiied lisb witb one another. Coarse Trapani salt is placed at tlie 
bottom of tbe barrel and over eaeli layer of flsb, about 1 peck of salt l)eing used to 
eacb barrel of fisli. Tbe barrel is then beaded and strong brine is added tbrougb tbe 
bungbole, wben tbe package is ready for sbipment. Tbe gross weigbt of a barrel of 
codfisb, including barrel and pickle, approximates 325 pounds. 

It requires about -i'oi) pounds of round cod or 290 pounds of split flsb to make 
a barrel of 200 pounds pickled. If tbe green fish cost 40 cents per 100 pounds, the 
cost of preparing a barrel of pickled cod approximates $3.05, divided as follows: 

Fish, 430 pountls, at 40 cents per 100 pouiiils $1.72 

Labor, dressing, splittinj;', aud pickling 14 

Salt used in pickling 32 

Barrel used in packing 50 

Labi>r of repaiking 07 

Cooperage 05 

Wear and tear, loss, etc 25 

Total 3.05 

The average price of pickled cod is about $4 per l)arrel, while haddock are usually 
worth from 25 to 50 cents less. The market is principally in New York and tbe West. 
The annual product ou the New England coast ranges from 2,000 to 3,000 barrels. 

It appears that there is scope for enlargement of the tiade in pickled cod, 
especially if prepared with great care. Considerable quantities are pickled in I lolland, 
Scotland, Sweden, IJelgium, France, aud the British North American Provinces. The 
jirocess employed in eacb country differs somewhat from that in the United States; the 
business is conducted more systematically, and the output is much more extensive. 

It is generally conceded that the choicest pickled cod are prepared in Holland, 
those fish selling on the European markets at an equivalent of $11 to $10, and some- 
times as high as $25, per barrel of 250 pounds, compared with which tbe average price 
of our pickled cod ($1 per barrel) seems very small. Following is the usual process: 

As Boon as caught each lish is Ided by cutting the thro.at and is then split down the belly from 
the throat to the tail, the knife running somewhat on the sideof the ventral line so as to have the flesh 
on one siileof the dorsal line much larger than the other. The head and three-fourths of the backbone 
are removed, and tbe lish immediately washed. The abdominal cavity is well brushed, and to 
thoroughly cleanse the parts about the remaining portion i>f the li:i( kbone the tail is twisted from left 
to right and from right to left, and also bent up aud down during the process of washing. After being 
cleansed the fish are jjaoked with dry salt in butts and allowed to make their own pickle. When 
well struck, usually in five or si.K days, the fish are repacked in market barrels with some fresh salt 
between them and with the old pickle poured over all. In packing, the tail of each fish is held in 
the right hand aud the upper jportiou in the left hand, aud the fish so folded that about one-half of 
■ the left side is underneath the right side, the body of the lish being bent to follow the curve of the 
barrel, each layer in the barrel being formed by two fish. The fish should be firm aud free from a 
sodden or flabby condition. 

In Scotland the fish are usually bled as soon as caught, and after being split aud 
washed, as in the United States, are placed in butts or barrels with about 75 pounds 
of Liverpool salt to eacb 250 pounds of split fish. After remaining there two or three 
days they are removed, cleansed with brushes, aud packed in shipping barrels with 
about 50 pounds of salt scattered among tbe fish in each barrel, and strong pickle is 
then added. Most of these fish are sold in London at from £2 to £3 per barrel. 

The process used by the Swedes in pickling codfisb differs little from that employed 
in Scotland, except that Lisbon salt is generally used, and the fish are subjected to 
considerable compression during the first salting. In Belgium St. Ybes salt is used, 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 455 

and ill repacking', the old pickle from the first salting is added through the bmighole, 
it being claimed that this old pickle is better than new brine, because it prevents the 
lish from turning yellow and also gives it a better flavor. 

A century ago quantities of codfish were salted in barrels provided with holes 
near the bottom to permit the brine to leak away. The product was not generally 
considered so delicately flavored as cod retained in the brine, but in dressing it for 
the table it swelled, whereas the latter shrinks. 

BRINE-SALTED SALMON. 

During the last century and the early part of the present a large portion of the 
salmon taken in the rivers of New England were salted in barrels for local use during 
the winter and for distant markets. At present, however, practically the entire catch 
on the Atlantic coast is marketed fresh. Many salmon are salted on the racific; coast 
of the United States, especially in Alaska, where the business originated ten years 
ago, and at one or two points on the coast of Oregon and California, the business in the 
latter State dating from 1853. In Alaska the red [Oneorhynchm nerla), the humpback 
{(). fl(>rhii.\cli((), and the king or chinook salmon {(). Ischairytsclui) are salted, while 
lower down the coast the silver salmon (O. limifch) is the 8|)ecies generally used, but 
some chinook are also salted. The annual product is about 25,000 barrels, valued in 
San Francisco at about ■§10 ))er barrel. 

Quantities of salmon are also brine salted in the British North American Provinces, 
especially on the coast of Labrador and Newfoundland, as well as in the Uudson Bay 
territory. These fish are known in the ITuited States as " Halifax salmon." The trade 
began early in the present century, and since 1840 has ranged betsveen 3,000 and 
10,000 barrels annually, the present annual receipts averaging 5,500 barrels, valued 
at about $l'> jier barrel. In the fisheries of northern Europe and Asia salmon are 
also salted, but it is unusual for any of the product to be received in this country. 

In dressing salmon for pickling on the Pacitic coast, the heads are removed and 
the fish split along the belly, the cut ending with a downward curve on the tail. The 
viscera and two-thirds of the backbone are removed, and the blood, gurry, and black 
stomach membrane scra])ed away. The fish are then thrown into washing tubs, the 
red-fleshed and the pale fleshed fish being jdaced in separate tubs and soaked suffi- 
ciently to make them perfectly free from blood, and thoroughly cleaned with a brush 
or broom. They are next placed in pickling butts with about 15 pounds of salt to 
every 100 jjounds of fish, and sometimes a little saltpeter is used to increase and set 
the pink color. The fish i-emain in the salting butts about one week, when they are 
removed, rubbeil clean with a scrub brush, and repacked in market barrels, one sack 
of salt being used to every three barrels of 200 pounds each. At some of the salting 
establishments the fish are salted in the barrels without being first placed in butts, but 
these are usually repacked in San Francisco. The barrels used in packing salted 
salmon in Alaska are generally made of native woods at the salteries, a stock being 
prepared before the salmon season. 

The following notes on salting salmon in Alaska are furnished by Mr. A. B. 
Alexander : 

Tlie demand for salt salmon is yearly increasiuj;. A few years ago there was bnt little call for 
it, probably owing to the fact that little etfort was made on the part of those engaged in the business 
to introduce it in the East. Seeing the absolute necessity of taking steps to place their products on 



456 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

the Eastern market in urder to increase the ilemand and establish a trade for salt-enred saliiuin, eli'orts 
have been pushed in tbat direction, and the encouragement met with has induced many who had not 
the means or desir(^ to enter into the expensive business of cannini; salmon to establish sahnon salteries 
iu various jiarts of Alaska. The amount of capital reijuired to start on a small scale in this business 
is not large. One or two boats fitted with driig seines, a cabin on shore for living qnarters, a rough 
shed or lish house in which to dress and salt the fish and for performing snch general work as may be 
required in a limited business of this kind will suffice for all purposes. Many of the well-established 
salteries were first startc d in this manner and have since grown to be of considerable importance. 
Two or three men with only a small amount of capital, if they are fortunate in selecting !i good locality 
where the run of salmon can be relied upon — for the success of tlic entire business dejiends upon the 
location — can, if they display the required amount of energ3', build up a paying business. They of 
course must appreciate the I'act that for at least seven months out of the year they must content 
themselves with lieing cutod' and isolated from civilization ; but the class of men who seek a livelihood 
in this remote part of tlie world care little for social life, or, if so, the prospect which looms up before 
them forniaking money is fully equivalent toany hardships of this nature they may undergo. Several 
small vessels manned by men of small means have, ilnriug the past fc^vv years, made annual voyages 
to Alaska, 8])ent the fishing season there, and in the fall brought back the summer's catch. At first 
they temporarily located tlieinselves by way of an experiment where it was thought to be a good 
jiosition for carrying on the business. If the experiment proved a success, the next year greater 
jirep-arations were made, and iu this way from a small beginning quite a number of valuable plants 
have been established. The greater part of the salmon put np .at the salteries are caught in drag 
seines, although a few are taken iu gill nets and traps, but at most places where s.alteries are situated 
the drag seine hiis been found to be the most profitable apparatus of capture, owing to the great 
number of smooth beaches where the fish can be easily taken. 

All barrels used for putting up salmon in southeastern Alaska are manufactured at the salteries. 
Suitable wood being abundant, thc^y can be iiiade at a rcasonalile price. During the winti^r months 
enough barrels are made to meet the demand for the coming season. A cooper is an indispensable 
person about .a salmon saltery, for, besides performing his regular duties as a cooper, he is often called 
upon to assist in various mechanical jobs, and is paid by the piece, or so mncli per barrel — 85 cents 
for making a whole barrel and Go cents for a half barrel. At this price he can earn good wages, for 
he is under no expense for board. It being the obje<t of every man owning a saltery to enlarge on the 
plant and increase his business as rapidly as possible, several weeks of each year, before and after the 
fishing season, are spent in building wharves, if needed, erecting buildings, and making snch Improve- 
ments as ale required to keep a place of this kind in good order. Many salmon salters h.ave gained a 
firmer foothold iu Alaska th.an the meri^ business of salting s.almon would give them. They have 
branched out into general trade and have stores well stocked with goods of .all kinds. In this way 
they have drawn arouu<l them the neighboring tribes of Indians, who are ever ready to buy .and trade 
for snch commodities as they require. 

In Sweden the choicest pickled salmon are the "ice-house salted salmon," These 
are killed as soon as caught, split and eviscerated, and the head anil larger portion of 
the backbone removed. Each tish is then rubbed with a mixture of salt and sugar 
and carefully jdaced, skin upward, except the bottom layer, in barrels and covered 
with brine. These barrels are stored in icehouses or cool cellars and kept at a low 
temperature. 

The following method of brine-salting salmon was practiced in Scotland a hundred 

years ago : * 

The Scotch salmon is not too fat, a circumstance which contributes much to its preservation. 
As soon as possible after thej' return from fishing, they split the salmon in the same manner as is 
done with flat cod, except that cod is cut along the belly, and salmon along the back from the head to 
where the fin of the tail begins, and often leave the large bone sticking to the flesh of one of the sides. 
Having cut the ti.sh in this manner, taken out the gills, emptied it, and, sometimes, taken oft' a part of 
the largo bone, they wash it in sea water, if they have it convenient to them, or, if not, iu fresh water, 



* A treatise on fishing for herring, cod, and salmon .and of curing or preserving them, published 
by order of the Dublin Society, Dublin, 1800. pp. 140-141. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 457 

to tMl<e out ull tUo bliioil, -svUicb lias a great tendency to ]inlret'action. This seems to be a miioU b(!tter 
nietbod than th.itof washing the lish in its own blood, as is used in the North, jirobably for the puriHise 
of Miaking the llesh reililer. When the lish has dripped they pnt it into large tubs, with French or 
Spanish salt over it and under it. It is supposed that Spanish salt gives it a more reddisli coh)r than 
French salt, but that French salt gives it a less sharp taste. Some leave the fish in ^ilt for eight or 
ten days and th(Mi barrel them. Others put them without salt iuto large tubs, filled with strong brine, 
and leave them there for a month or six weeks and sometimes longer, waiting until there may be a call 
for them, for it is thought that salmon keeps better in those large vessels than in barrels, but care 
must be taken to have it constantly covered with brine. Lastly, it is to be taken out of tlie tubs and 
barreled. In the bottom of the barrel they put four or five small salmon and then lay on the large, 
good salmon, pressing them together as much as i)ossilile and putting a little salt between them. In 
the toj) of the liarrel, likewise, they jiut some small salmon. When the barrel is full they j)Our in a 
small nuantity of strong brine and immediately closi^ it up, for it is necessary to guard the fish against 
the contact of the air and to prevent the brine from being lost. Without these precautions the siilmon 
would grow yellow and rusty and would contrai t a bad smell. Large salmon is more liable to these 
ineonveniiuces th.aii the smaller sort, and, therefore, requires more salt in the barreling of it. It is 
more difficult to preserve salmon than cod. The Scotch take care not to mix salmon of different sorts 
and i|ualities in the same barrels, and not to export such as are had. There is a bounty on every 
barrel exported, and there are inspectors in every port of Scotland whose business it is to iui|iiire into 
and certify the good quality, species, etc., of the fish. When the barrels arrive at their place of 
destination, they ought to be tilled again with fresh brine. 

BRINE-SALTED MULLET. 

Mullet is the most important fish brine-salted in the Southern States, more of 
this species being pickled than all others combined, the product being especially large 
on the coasts of North Carolina and Florida, where about (>,000 barrels are prepared 
annually between the middle of August and the end of November. 

As soon as removed from tlie seines and carried ashore tlie midlet are dressed. 
This consists in sjilitting them down the back and underneath the backbone from tlie 
head to the tail, .so that the fish will lay out flat, and removing the viscera, stomach 
membrane, and gills. On the coast of Florida, where the mullet are very large, the 
heads are removed, and sometimes the backbones, but this is not the case on the Caro- 
lina coasts. A horizontal gash is .sometimes cut in tlie thick portion of the flesh on 
the side in which the backbone is left, in order that the brine may easily penetrate it. 
The flsh are ne.xt immersed in tubs or barftls of clean salt wsiter and soaked for about 
half an hour and the blood and .slime washed off. Tliey are removed one at a time 
and salted with the hand, the salt being rubbed both inside and outside. Then they 
are usually placed, flesh side up, in old boxes or barrels of any description that are 
clean, with salt sprinkled over each layer of fish. Generally this work is done by the 
fishermen and their assistants, and on tlie North Carolina coast they take them to 
market in two or three days and sell them to the packers, who are usually wholesale 
grocers or dealers in fresh and salt fish, by whom the mullet ai'e at once repacked. 
Ill other localities, and especially on the west Florida coast, the repacking is generally 
done by the fishermen. 

In repacking the mullet are removed from the first package and placed in layers, 
with the face or inside of the fish nj), in new white pine barrels, 100 pounds being 
put in each package. In order to permit the brine to easily permeate the contents 
of the barrel, the fish of one layer are sometimes placed at right angles to those in 
the layer below. Strang lirine of not less than 95'^ test, or, as usually determined by 
the fishermen, strong enough to float a mullet, is then poured in until the barrel is 



458 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

full, when the barrel is coopered and set aside and sold to the trade. lu some cases, 
instead of making new brine, the pickle resulting from the first salting is boiled in 
large kettles, strained, cooled, and poured over the lish, and dry salt is frequently 
sprinkled over each layer of fish as they are jjlaced in tlie barrel. It requires half a 
bushel of salt to strike and pickle 100 pounds of mullet. The decrease in weight by 
dressing, when only the viscera and gills are removed, approximates 15 jjer cent, and 
the decrease iu weight by curing is about 10 per cent. 

The fishermen sell the partly salted mullet to the dealers at prices ranging from 
$1.50 to $3.50 per 100 i)Ounds, and after pickling them the dealers usually sell them 
for from 82.50 to $1.50 per barrel of 100 pounds, the quality and full weight of the fish 
being guaranteed by the dealer who puts them up. According to the inspection laws 
of North Carolina, mullet are divided into tbree grades — those taken in gill nets of 
2iuch mesh being called 2-inch mullet and branded as "number one"; IJ-iuch mullet, 
"number two''; 1-incli and under, "number three"; and fish of different lengths and 
kinds are designated "mixed." 

In North Carolina it is required, by an enactment of 1879, that barrels used in 
l)acking mullet shall have staves 25 inches in length and heads 13 inches in diameter. 
They are made generally of Maine white ])iiie, and cost from 45 to (iO cents each. 
Packages made from the long-leaf i)ine grown iu the Southern' States should never be 
used, since the fish are liable to be flavored with the turpentine. Mullet are also 
placed in quarter barrels containing 50 pounds, in full barrels of 200 pounds capacity, 
and in kits of 10 and 15 pounds each. 

If tlie fish are kept oil hand long they are examined from time to time by remov- 
ing the barrel heads, and if the pickle has leaked out more is added, for the fish must 
be kept under pickle to prevent their rusting and spoiling. They are also liable to 
rust if kept in the first salting longer than one week. Pickled mullet are at their 
best after they have been pickled from one to six weeks; after that they begin to 
deteriorate in quality, and after six jnonths they, become so strong that they are not 
very palatable and few are then sold. 

The full value of pickled mullet is scarcely appreciated on our South Atlantic and 
Gulf of Mexico coasts, and there are stretches hundreds of miles in extent where none 
whatever are prejiared, notwithstanding tlie fact that the fish are abundant and 
the industry would yield remunerative employment to the fishermen of the locality. 
Even where mullet are prejiared many of the fishermen are unfamiliar with the best 
methods of cure, and some mullet are put up in so crude a manner as to injure the 
trade by prejudicing the public against eating these fish. Pickled mullet properly 
cured are among the choicest of our Southern fishery products, and if careful attention 
be given to their preparation, with suitable restrictions against marketing inferior 
l)roducts, a large trade in them could be establislied, and, because of their great abun- 
dance, without in any way conflicting with the supply for the fresh-fish markets. 

BRINE-SALTED SHAD. 

During the early part of the present century pickled shad was an important 
fishery product, large quantities being salted in barrels, either for local use during 
the winter or for shii)nient to distant markets. It was a staple winter food for the 
people living near the shad streams, most of the fainilies who could afford it laying 
iu from 1 to 5 or C barrels. People living 50 miles or more inland came to the streams 



PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 459 

to obtain their winter supi)ly of (isb, bringing their products to exchange, such as 
maple sugar and salt, or cider and whisky; and sometimes the fishermen sold to 
traders, who carted the fish inland, exchanging them for what they could get. 

Shad are yet salted to some extent on Kennebec River, in Casco Bay, on Delaware 
River, the tributaries of the Chesapeake, and in the Carolinas. The bulk of those ou 
the Boston mi'rket come from Canada, while of the domestic product the coast and 
rivers of Maine and the Chesapeake region furnish the greater number. Those salted 
in the Southern States are usually eaten in the homes of the fishermen or in the imme- 
diate neighborhood. There is no uniform method of preparation, the dressing of the 
fish, the salting, and the i)acking varying according to the experience or fancies of 
the different curers; but the following are the most general processes when the fish 
are to be placed on the market. 

KENNEBEC RIVER PROCESS. 

The shad are first beheaded and split along the belly, eviscerated, and about G 
inches of the upper i)ortion of the backbone removed. They are next washed thor- 
oughly, some curers washing tliein in two waters, allowing tliem to soak five or six 
hours in the second washing. After the soaking tiie end of the tail is sometimes cut 
off". The shad are then ready for salting. In this operation a layer of salt is placed 
in the bottom of a barrel or butt, and this is followe<l by successive layers of fish and 
salt, the former with the backs down, about a bushel of salt to each 200 pounds of 
split fish. It is desirable to rub the salt over the face or flesh side of the shad before 
placing in the barrel. In a few days the fish in the top layer are turned backs up and 
a weiglit is put on them to keep them beneath the pickle, and a small quantity of 
salt placed over all to strengthen the weak jjickle floating at the toj). The shad may 
remain in the pickle a month or more, but usually two weeks or even less is sutticient 
time for the curing. On removal they are rinsed ott' in the pickle, culled if the quan- 
tity warrants, weighed in lots of 200 pounds each, and packed backs down in tight 
barrels, with salt -scattered at the bottom of the barrel and over each layer of fish, 
about half a bushel of salt being used for eacli barrel. 

Liverpool salt is used almost exclusively, for striking or curing and for repacking. 
Trapaui salt is objectionable, as its coarse grains lacerate the smooth surface of the 
shad. After 200 pounds of fish have been i)laced in the barrel, the latter is filled 
with strained pickle from the curing or first packing and the head is put on, when 
the barrel is ready for branding and shipment; or, better still, after the barrel is 
headed and its contents have settled somewhat it is turned on its side and additional 
pickle added through the bung. When properly prepared, pickled shad should keep 
from 12 to 24 months. The shrinkage from dressing and salting is about 50 per cent, 
400 pounds of round shad being required to make a barrel of 200 pounds salted, the 
number of fish to the barrel ranging from 75 to 120. The price received is usually $8 
or $10 per barrel. 

THE CHESAPEAKE PROCESS. 

On the tributaries of Chesapeake Bay the roe shad are rarely salted, on account 
of the demand for them in the fresh fish markets, and as a rule it is only during a glut 
in those markets that the bucks or males are salted. In preparing the fish the heads 
and tails are cut off aiul the fish cut down the back to the tail and thrown in tubs or 



460 BULLETIN OF THE TTNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

vats of water wbere tbey soak for an hour or so, tlie blood witbiii the backbone being- 
scraped out witb a knife in tbe meautime, wbeii tbe water should be renewed or the 
flsb placed in other tubs. Upon completion of the washing and soaking, the fish are 
drained and put in vats with dry Liverpool salt at the bottom, and over each layer 
of fish, and on top. Every 12 hours thereafter for 7 days the fish are stirred with a 
pole, to separate them from each other and to have all portions uniformly salted, thus 
;ivoiding spots caused by salt burning. 

On the eighth day the fish should be removed, drained, and i)acl<ed in barrels. 
First is placed a sprinkling of Turks Island salt, then a layer of shad, backs down, 
then a si)rinkling of salt and another layer of fish, backs up, and so on until tbe 
barrel is full; and after the fish have settled for a day or so the barrel is topped up 
with other flsh and then filled with strong pickle made of Liverpool salt, when it is 
coopered and stored ready for market. The usual wholesale price for salted buck 
shad is $7.50 per barrel of 180 pounds. 

The salting of shad was once an important industry on the Connecticut River 
and on Long Islaiul Sound near the mouth of that stream, and there is a provision 
among the laws of Connecticut requiring that — 

Pickled shad intended for market sh.all besjilit and well cleansed and pickled in strong brine, and 
shall remain in such brine at least 15 d.iys before they shall be jint up for market, and shall be put up 
in barrels or half-barrels, the barrels containing 200 pounds each, and the half-barrels 100 pounds each, 
of fisli well packed, with a sufficient quantity of salt, and filled with strong brine; and shad so i)ut 
up shall be of three denouiinatious, to wit: Shad " number one," to consist wholly of shad well saved, 
free from rust or any defect, with the head and tail cut otf and the backbone cut out, each barrel to 
contain not more than 80 shad, and each half-barrel not more than 40. The second denomination shall 
be shad "number two,'' to consist wholly of those well saved, trimmed, pickled, and prepared for 
packing in the same manner as shad number one, each barrel to contain not mo:e than 90 sbad, and 
each half-barrel not more than 45. The third denomination shall be shad " number three," to consist 
of such .as will not answer for either of the two former numbers, well saved, with the heads taken oH'. 

The legislature of Maine, in 1S28, required that shad pickled in that State should 
be branded as follows: 

Those of the best (Hiality, caught in the right season, to be most approved and free from damage, 
having their tails cut oft" and backbones out, shall be branded " cargo mess"; those which remain after 
the best have been selected, being sweet and free from taint, rnst, or damage, with their backbones 
in and tails on, shall be branded "cargo No. 1''; and there shall be a third (juality, which shall 
consist of the thinnest and ])Oorest of those that are sweet and wholesome, which shall bo branded 
" cargo No. 2." 

BRINE-SALTED SWORDFISH. 

Most of the swordflsh captured on the New England coast are sold fresh, yet 
sometimes a glut in the market or the exigencies of the fishery make it desirable that 
they be preserved in more permanent form, and pi'ckling in brine is the process usually 
adopted. In dressing, the swords are sawed off and discaided and the heads removed 
with a large knife and saved for the oil factories. The fish is then split down the 
belly and the viscera removed. The splitting is continued down to the tail and 
around the back, the backbone removed, and the fins and tail cut oft'. The flsh is 
then cut into pieces weighing 4 or .5 pounds each and placed in butts with a heavy 
sprinkling of salt, about 2^ bushels of Trapani salt being used to each 1,000 pounds 
of fish. Any time after 10 days or 2 weeks the flsh are repacked in shipping 
barrels — 200 i^ounds to the barrel — with a small quantity of salt sprinkled among 
them. The barrel is then filled with pickle and headed up. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 



461 



Because of its being so fat, the shrinkage of swordflsh in pickling is very great, 
amounting sometimes to 30 per cent of the weight after it has been beheaded and 
eviscerated. When the pickling is done on board vessel the fish are placed with salt 
in barrels in the same manner as in the butts, and are repacked ashore in order to 
insure the projier weight in the barrel, a small fjuantity of salt being added usually in 
the repacking, or the fish may be repacked in the original pickle. 

The market for the i)roduct exists principally in the interior of New England, 
and especially in Connecticut, where many persons consider it more palatable than 
salted mackerel. The wholesale price is generally about the same as for No. 3 mack- 
erel, averaging from $6 to $8 per barrel. 

A fair idea of the cost and jirofit in pickling swoidfish ashore may be obtained 
from the following figures, representing the handling of 4,043 pounds of pickled fish, 
the shrinkage from dressing and pickling amounting to 1,787 pounds: 



Swordflsh (5,830 pounds, at IJ cents) . . $72. 87 

Salt 3.07 

Labor, cutting and pickling 5. 84 

Barrels, 15 at 25 cents 3. 75 

Half-barrels, 10 at 16 cents 1.60 

Cartage, 15 barrels, at 7 cents 1.05 

10 half-barrels, at 3i cents. . . .35 

Interest, wear and tear, and profit 44. 87 



133. 40 



Pickled swordflsh : 

15 barrels, at $6.50 $97. .50 

10 half-barrels, at $3.45 34. 50 

43 pounds, at 3^ cents 1. 40 



133. 40 



BRINE-SALTING FISH ON THE GREAT LAKES. 

Large quantities of trout, whitefish, herring, pike, pickerel, saugers, suckers and 
other species of Great Lakes fish, were formerly salted each year, but the increased 
trade in iresh fish and the development of the frozen-fish business have resulted in a 
large decrease in the product of salt fish. The most i)rofitable disposition of fish on 
the Great Lakes is in the fresh-fisli markets, and when the supply is in excess of the 
demand the surplus is generally frozen, the salters receiving only the surplus after 
both the fresh and frozen trades have been supplied, the fish that, are salted being only 
such as can not be sold with profit, cither fresh or frozen. Many of these fish are 
salted immediately after removal from the nets; others are sent to the large ports 
packed in ice for the fresh trade, hut on a glut developing in the market they are 
salted, and a small (piantity consists of fish which have been frozen, but are finally 
salted because of exigencies in the frozen-fish trade or because of fault in the freezing. 
Frozen fish are not so satisfactory lor pickling as are fresh fish, because of their great 
tendency to rust, but they are equally good for smoking. 

The niethoils of salting fish on the Groat Lakes are essentially tlie same for the 
various species, ditlering only slightly in the manner of splitting. They are laid open 
flat by splitting down the back or down the belly to the tail, or in case of ciscoes they 
are split down the belly only sufficiently to remove the viscera, similar to the split 
herring on the New England coast. The fish bring a higher i)rice if sjjlit down the 
back, and when salted directly from the nets that is the usual method of dressing, 
but many of the large ones have already been split down the belly to the vent in 
dressing for the fresh fish t'ade, and in that case the splitting is continued down to 
the tail, so that the fish may be laid out flat. Trout are generally s])lit down the back 
if salted by the fishermen, but most of tho.se on the market are from the fresh-fish 



462 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

houses and consequently Lave been split down the belly, and the same is to some 
extent true in regard to whiteflsh, but the proportion of salted whitefish split down the 
back is greater than in case of trout. Blue pike, yellow pike, mullet, sheepshead, 
perch, and carp are usually split down the back, even though prepared as surplus 
from the fresh-fish trade, since they are usually sold round in the fresh fish markets. 
Herring split down the belly to the vent sufticiently to remove the viscera are com- 
monly called ciscoes, but many herring are split down the back and sold under the 
trade name of " family whitefish." The difference in value of fish when split down the 
back and when split down the belly is shown in that species. Although the ciscoes 
and the family whiteflsh are prepared from the same grade of fish, yet the latter 
usually sells for about 50 cents per 100 pounds more than the ciscoes. It is much 
easier and quicker to split herring for ciscoes than for family whitefish, 500 pouTids 
of ciscoes being readily split in one hour, whereas twice that length of time is required 
for splitting an eijnal quantity of family whitefish. Not so many ciscoes are prepared 
now as a few years ago, since the increased value of the fish makes the better method 
of cure profitable. 

On arrival at the saltiug house, if the fish have already been eviscerated, the 
heads are cut oft' and the splitting continued down to the tail, so that the fish will lie 
flat. In case the fish are round when received, they are beheaded and cut down the 
back along the left side of the backbone, so as to lie flat, except in case of ciscoes, as 
above noted, and the rough edges of the backbone are cut oft". The flat edge of the 
knife is run around the abdonunal cavity to scrape away the blood, etc., and if the fish 
are large, one or t« o horizontal deep cuts are made in the thick flesh of the l)ack. The 
fish are then thrown into a trough containing fresh water, where they soak for a few 
minutes and are removed with a pew or fork and thrown on a draining and salting 
table, three-fourths of the top of which consists f>f strips on edge, on which the fish lie 
to drain, and the remaining one fourth of the width is solid for holding the salt. After 
draining a few moments, each fish is taken separately, laid back down on the salt 
if large, and a quantity of salt spread evenly over the face, and the fish carefully 
placed face up in a tight barrel. For protection from <lust, etc., the top layer is placed 
skin up. In saltiug small fish, one is taken in each hand and rubbed in the salt, as in 
salting mackerel. 

In case of ciscoes, the stomach cavities are scraped fall of salt and closed and the 
fish are thrown into the pickling barrel. 

In order to avoid lacerating the flesh of the fish it is necessary to use fine salt, 
either Syracuse or Warsaw being preferred. The former is a solar salt and weighs 
about 336 ])ounds per barrel, and the latter, a pan salt, weighs about 2!tO pounds per 
barrel, and the cost of each ranges from 90 cents to $1 per barrel, the Warsaw being 
usually a few cents cheaper than the Syracuse. Cleveland salt is also used to some 
extent in striking. Some salt is sprinkled in the bottom of the barrel and several 
handfuls i)laced on top of the fish, and weights placed thereon to keep the fish down 
in the pickle, these weights consisting usually of stones on top of boards. No brine 
is added, the fish making their own pickle. The entire quantity of salt used for each 
100 pounds of green fish ranges from 12 to 15 i)ounds, according to the size and 
condition of the fish and tlic season. Fish that have been frozen do not require so 
much salt as fresh fish, since they are somewhat drier and the texture is to some 
extent disintegrated, in'i-mitting the salt to strike through the fish more readily. 
Within four or five days the fish are struck through, dexjeuding on the grade of sail, 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 463 

size of tbe flsb, mid the temperatui-e, and at any time thereafter they may be removed 
and repacked. This should be done at the fu'st convenient opportunity, for the longer 
the fish remain in the pickling barrel or vat after being cured the darker they will be, 
which detracts from their value. 

On removal from the pickling barrel the flsh are rinsed in the pickle to get rid of 
tbe surplus salt and at once weighed and repacked in the shipping i>ackages, which 
consist almost entirely of half-barrels with capacity for 100 pounds. These are made 
mostly in Sandusky, and cost from 40 to 45 cents each. The fish are carefully placed 
face up, except the two top layers, which are placed with the skin side up as a protec- 
tion from the head of the barrel. Salt is sprinkled in the bottom of the barrel, at tbe 
top, and at intervals among the layers of fish, about S pounds being used for each 100 
pounds of fish. Syracuse salt No. 2 is usually preferred for packing, even though 
Warsaw or Cleveland salt has been used in striking. When the package is full of 
flsh strong brine is poured in to fill tbe interstices between tbe fish. This brine is 
made by i)ermitting water to percolate through a box or tank, tbe lower part of which 
is filled with some filtering substance, such as straw or plane shavings, and tbe upper 
part filled with salt; or tbe filtering box may have a false bottom covered with burlap, 
tbe salt resting above the builap and the brine percolating through and remaining in 
a tank below. In case the salting establishment is connected with an iee-and-salt 
cold storage the surplus brine from the iceandsalt receptacles may be used with 
excellent result, this brine being permitted ti> flow from the receptacles into a large 
filtering tank sunk in tbe ground, froia which it may be pumped as required. The 
strength of the brine usually depends on the season of the j'ear and tbe grade of flsh 
being packed. In the summer packing of wbitefish or trout the brine should be of 
100° salinometer test. But in October and November packing of herring, brine of even 
60° test is frequently used, this being made by weakening stronger brine with fresh 
water. This use of diluted or weak brine is satisfactory when the packer is assured 
that the flsh will be used before spring; but in packing flsh for the general trade, 
where they may not be used until the following summer, the brine should not be 
weaker than O.^o, and 100'^ test is much better. 

When tbe package is fllled with brine the top is coopered on and additional pickle 
admitted through a hole in the head of the barrel by means of a funnel watering-pot, the 
barrel being overfllled to permit tbe i)ickle to soak in. In a few^ hours a plug is driven 
in the bole and the tightness of the head is tested by pressing on it in the center. 

The decrease in dressing fish ranges from 15 to 35 per cent of the round weight, 
according to the species of flsh and the season of the year. The decrease is least 
in case of herring and blue pike and is greatest with mullet and carp, but it varies 
in different seasons of the year, according to the development of the ovaries. The 
decrease in weight of Great Lakes flsh in pickling ranges from 8 to 13 per cent of tbe 
dressed weight, according to the fatness of the fish and tbe extent of the salting. 
The decrease in herring is about 9 per cent of the dressed weight, 110 pounds of split 
flsh being necessary to make a 100-pound package of salted flsh. Wbitefish, being 
fatter than herring, decrease more in weight in salting and consequently are drier, the 
salt absorbing the fat. Generally, in case of wbitefish, trout, and herring, about 132 
pounds of round flsh are required for each 100 pounds of i)iekled flsh. In brine- 
salting trout, 130 pounds round, 115 pounds from the ice, or 105 pounds from the 
knife are required for each 100- pound package. 



464 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

Aside from the first cost of the fish and the cost of plant, superintendence, etc., 
the expense ia preparing pickled Great Lakes fish is about the same for the various 
sjjecies and approximates 69 cents jter jiackage of lUO pounds, divided as foUows : 

Labor in dressing and salting $0. 12 

Salt in striking and pacljing 07 

Labor in packing, coopering, etc 08 

Barrel 42 

Whitetish are generally divided into three grades — Nos. 1, 2, and 3. In the first 
class are placed all weigliing 2 pounds and over; No. 2 includes all weighing between 
1 and 2, and No. 3 includes all under 1 pound in weight. 

Trior to 1891 there was only one grade of trout, but it has since been cus- 
tomary to brand trout weighing li pounds or more as No. 1 and all under that 
weight as No. 2. 

BRINE-SALTED HALIBUT FINS. 

Tiie strips of Hesli attached to tlie inner boues of the dorsal and ventral fins of 
the halibut are cut off in dressing these fish for use by the smokers, and are subse- 
quently pickled; but in case of the fresh-halibut trade the fins are not removed, but 
are shipped with the fish. In dressing halibut for the smokehouses, the " feathers" 
or "fly" of the fins are first cut away, tlien with the point of the fletching knife the 
skin is cut on eacih side of the fin about 2 inches from the edge, and by a sharp 
stroke near the tail that end is separated, and catching hold thereof the whole fin 
is pulled ott', the two fins representing about 3 or -t per cent of the weight of the 
round halibut. They are placed in tiers in tight barrels, with salt sprinkled in the 
bottom and over each layer, about 1 bushel of salt being used to each 200 pounds. 
On being lauded from tlie vessel the pickled tins are frequently repacked in half- 
barrels and other small packages, and they are used n)ostly as ship stores. 

Several years ago pickled-halibut tins sold at $8 to $10 per barrel of 200 pounds, 
but the price gradually decreasetl to about half that amount. In 1898 they sold at 
about $8. This fliu-tiiatioii is due to the fact that during the Iceland fishery a large 
percentage of the halibut were too small to warrant saving the fins, and the demand 
for ship stores being good, the market was not overstocked. When the Iceland 
fishery was abandoned Cor Bacalieu and other western banks the average size of the 
fish caught was nuicli increased, so that many more tins were salted. This, together 
with a decreasing demand, greatly overstocked the market and rau the price down 
very low, so that in 1897 and 1898 very few vessels saved the fins. The small product 
resulted in equalizing the supply and demand, and in 1898 the price was advanced to 
nearly its former standing, 

MISCELLANEOUS BRINE-SALTING. 

All along the coast of the United States a small local business is carried on in 
pickling fish for use during the winter in the homes of fishermen and their neighbors. 
Among the species thus i)repared are bluefish, squetague or sea trout, channel bass, 
croakers, perch, sheepshead, Spanish mackerel, striped bass, black bass, hogflsh, etc. 
There is no uniform method of pickling, the fish being dressed, salted, and packed 
according to the fancies and convenience of the carers, aiul the product rarely goes 
on the general market. In general, the fish are dressed by removing the head and 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 465 

viscera, aiul are split down tlie back or sometimes tbe belly, so as to lie out flat. 
They are next washed and soaked until the blood is removed and then covered with 
salt and placed in barrels, first a sprinkling of salt and then a layer of fish, and so on 
until the barrel is filled. Then brine is poured in to till the interstices and the barrel 
is headed and coopered. 

In Europe a large variety of marine products are brine-salted, most of them being 
prepared Iroiu species of the herring family. The following descriptions apply to the 
method of preparing a number of them : 

PRESSED SARDINES. 

The "pressed sardines" of Sweden are prepared in the following manner: 

As soou as tbe sanliiics are raugbt tbcy aio tborouybly iviswrateil, cleansed, and salted in biyers 
in Large vats, 65 jionnds of salt being nsed to 100 pounds of lisb, tbis salt being tboiougbly sprinkled 
between tbe layers of iisb. Witbin two or tbree days brine forms and covers tbe fish, and tbere tbey 
remain for one or two, and sometimes tbroe. montbs — the longer tbe better. Wben ready for repacking, 
tbe sardines are laid flat in tbo barrel witb tbeir tails pointing toward tbe center, while before they 
w»ere placed in layers. Tbe barrel is thus filled to witbin 4 inches of tbe top, and over the fish is 
placed a sheet of paper, and npon that a thin board which is smaller than tbe opening of tbe barrel, 
and lastly a wooden block which measures one-fifth the height of tbe barrel. By means of a screw tbe 
wooden block and the fish underneath are slowly pressed down; then tbe block is removed and tbe 
space filled with more sardines, until the barrel is overfull. .\ sheet of paper and another thin board 
are put on the fish and [ireased down like tbe first, when the barrel hoops are loosened, tbe cover 
placed on, and the barrel tightly sealed. Tbo barrels are provided witb small boles, so that tbe oil 
and moisture may run otf. A barrel of 10 gallons capacity \\ ill hold from 3,000 to 8,000 pressed 
sardines. 

SALTED PILCHARDS OK FUMADOES. 

Somewhat similar to the above is the English process of preparing pilchards 
[Glnpea pilchardus) in the form of fumadoes* for the Italian markets, which is thus 
described in Holdsworth's Sea Fisheries: 

The curing is the esi)ecial work of the women, who pack the jiilcbards in alternate layers of 
coarse salt and fish on the stone floor of tbe curing bouse until tbe " bulk" has reached a height of 5 
or 6 feet. Here the fish remain for a month, and the oil and brine draining from them are carried off 
by gutters in tbe floor to a cistern. When the fish have been sufficiently salted, tbey are washed and 
packed in hogsheads, each layer of fish being placed witb their heads outward and with a "rose" of 
fish in the center. A circular piece of wood called a "buckler," and rather smaller than the head of 
the cask, is then placed on the top of the fish and strong but gradual pressure is .applied by means of 
a lever until the mass of fish is reduced one- third in bulk and a great quantity of oil squeezed from them. 
This drains through the sides and botton; of tbe cask, the hoops of which are not at that time very 
tightly driven, and is collected as before. The quantity of oil obtained from the pilchards depends on 
tbe season, but at least 2 gallons of oil are expected from eacli hogshead. It is principally used by the 
leather-dressers. The cask is filled up three times belore the pressing is finished, which is not until 
after eight or nine days, and then the hogshead (.50 gallons) of fish should weigh 4 cwt. gross. The 
average number of fish packed in a hogshead is about 2,r)00. The pilchards cured at St. Ives in 
the early i)art of tbe season are mostly taken by drift nets, but the seine fishery at a later period is 
mainly depended on to provide tbe fish for exportation. 

A large trade in pickled pilchards is carried on between Cornwall and the Italian 
ports, according to Francis Day, the idea having originated at Mevagissey, as follows: 

In ISTO [iawd aud IValer, November 18, 1882], a fish-curer here found there was a demand in the 
Mediterranean fish markets for bright salted pilchards, lie first thought the matter out and then 
cured several tons of pilchards by throwing them, with salt, into barrels, and allowiu-g the brine to 



* As may be inferred from the name, those fish were formerly smoked. William Borlase noted, in 
1758, "fuming them being for many years laid aside." 

F. C. B., 1898-30 



466 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

rise over tUem. After keeping tbom steeped for some weelis tUey wore washed, packed, and jiressed 
into clean barrels, just as was formerly done to the old-fasbioned fumadoes. On their being put on 
the market it was at once seen they were the article wanted; for these fish, instead of having the 
dirty yellow hue of the fuinado, had the desired bright and clean silvery color, hence they have been 
in demand ever since. The (ish-curer in question took out no patent rights, but allowed all to use his 
discovery; so much so that for some seasons past not less than 1,01)0 hogsheads of hsh yearly have 
been shipped for the Mediterranean from Mevagissey alone TLe barrels iirst used have been super- 
seded by large steeping vats, one of which here will h(dd over 500,000 lish. Since the business in 
question has been progressing, it has been discovered that the Spaniards cure sardines much after 
the same manner. 

Pickled pilchards are not so well flavored as salted pilchards, or fumadoes, but 
they will keep a much longer time, it being necessary to dispose of the latter within 
a short time after curing. 

ITALIAN SARDELS. 

The method of preparing the celebrated and deliciously-flavored sardels of Italy 
is as follows : 

After the freshly caught sardels or anchovies (EnyratiUs encrasicholus) have been well salted and 
washed they are cleaned and the lower jawbone is removed and the fish strongly salted in a barrel 
with 50 pounds of salt to 100 pounds of fish. There the fish remain for two or three months, wh«n 
they are removed and loosely packed in the market barrel or package, being resalted at the same time, 
25 pounds of salt being used to each 100 pounds of &s]i. The barrel is set upright, and after three or 
four months the blood pickle is poured oft' through a bunghole. During this time the barrel is placed 
in the sun, so that the pickle has become quite strong, and sometimes a little ocbcr is added to the 
pickle to give it a dark-red color. The fish may then be used within a few weeks, but to acquire its 
best flavor about three years are required. 

GAHRPISCH OR FERMENTATION FISH. 

In some of the districts of northern Sweden there is a uniipie method of preserving 
fish, the. product being known as " gahrfisch " or fermentation fish. Various species are 
used, but mostly the stromling or Swedish anchovy. The freshly caught anchovies, 
after being dressed and thoroughly washed, are lightly salted and loosely packed 
in tight wooden barrels. A blood pickle made from the dressings of the fish is then 
poured over them until all the fish are covered, when the barrel is tightly sealed. 
It is then placed where the sun's rays can reach it, and there it remains four or five 
weeks, the fish undergoing fermentation. If this fermentation be too rapid the barrel 
is removed to a cooler place, and as soon as the -fermentation has taken ])lace the 
barrel is opened and its contents repacked in smaller packages, which must be kept 
securely sealed, otherwise putrefaction ijuickly ensues. Tlie.se fermentation fish are 
eaten either raw or cooked, but the market is limited to northern Sweden. The odor 
is very strong and excites a feeling of disgust among persons unaccustomed to eating 
them, but when a taste for the fish has been acquired they are highly relished. 

SAHLSTROM PROCESS OF BRINE SALTING FISH. 

A method of pickling fish, intended especially for herring, was devised about 
fifteen years ago by Carl A. Sahlstriim, and has been n.sed to some extent in Norway 
and Scotland. It is somewhat similar to the Roosen process of preserving fish fresh 
by means of an antiseptic, and consists, first, in placing the dressed fisli in si dosed 
cylinder, into which brine is introduced until the cylinder is full. Additional brine is 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 467 

tlieii forced into this cylinder under a pressure of from GO to 100 pounds to the square 
incii, (hus forcing it into the tissues of the fish. The fish cau be salted sufficiently to 
suit the necessities of the market, aud the operation requires a less number of hours 
tlian the ordinary process requires weeks. The tissues are thoroughly permeated by 
the preserving liquid and are quite incapable of supporting organisms of putrefaction. 

PICKLING WITH VINEGAR AND SPICES. 

Pickling with vinegar and spices is one of the ancient forms of preserving fishery 
products, probably antedating even the pickling with salt. It was well known to the 
Greeks and liomans, tlie latter applying it especially to preserving mullet, swordfish, 
tunny, etc. The most costly spices were used, and the products frequently sold at 
fabulous prices. At present comparatively few fish are preserved in this manner and 
tlie business is done on a small scale. Many small herring are compounded with 
vinegar and spices and marketed as Russian sardines, and there is some importation 
from Europe of herring somewhat similarly prepared, which are sold as Christiania 
anchovies, marinated herring, spi(!ed herring, etc. A small business is done in pickling 
eels, sturgeon, and one or two other species with vinegar; and oysters, clams, and 
mussels are frequently put up with this antiseptic in glass jars, but the business is 
of small extent. 

RUSSIAN SARDINES. 

The preparation of Russian sardines, or small pickled herring in vinegar and 
spices, is of comparatively recent origin in this country, being first undertaken by Mr. 
Henry Sellman in 187-i, at about the time of the beginning of the Maine sardine 
industry. The business, which is not very extensive, is carried on in connection with 
the ])reparation of sardines on the coast of Maine. The fish used are similar to those 
canned in oil, varying in length from 7 to 12 inches alive and from .5 to 9 inches when 
dressed. As the herring are more valuable when canned they are so prepared when 
l»racticable; but when more fish are received than the canneries can handle the 
surplus is salted and prei)ared under the tiade name, llussian sardines. 

For many years previous to 1800 liussian sardines were i)rep;ired at various points 
in Europe, and especially at Hamburg, tiermany, and the trade extended to this 
country. By 1870 the importation of this product into the United States amounted 
to 50,000 kegs per annum, nearly all of whicli came from Hamburg. In consequence 
of the blockading of the (lerman ports in the early jiart of tlie Franco-German war 
the importation was necessarily abandoned for a time, and an effort was made to 
supply the deficiency with a domestic product, with such good results that at present 
few foreign-prepared Russian sardines enter into the United States trade. 

The i)resent method of i)reparation is as follows: 

As soon as jiiactioablc after being removed from the water tLe lisli are placed in strong brine 
contained in siiital)le easks. It is desirable that this bo done while the iisli are yet alive, so as to 
remove any possibility of putrefaction starting in. There they remain for about teu days, depending 
on the size of the lish and state of the weather, or until thoroughly otruck. The fish are then 
scaled, beheaded, eviscerated, aud ch^ansed in clear water, after wliich they are placed on sieves or 
other suitable receptacles for draining. After draining for several hours the fish are spread upon 
packing tables and assorted according to their size, each size being packed separately in kegs, with 
a mi.xture of certain iireservatives combined with llavoring substances. The preservative substances 
are vinegar, allspice, and chile pepper, or their ecjuivalents. The llavoring substances are sliced 



i68 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

onions, liay leaves, horse-radish, cloves, ginger, coriander seed, and capers or their equivalents. When 
all are used, the following (according to Mr. Henry Sellman) is about the usual proportion for every 
120 pounds of fish; Vinegar, 2 gallons; allspice, IJ ponmls; sliced onions, 4 pounds; .sliced horse-radish, 
2 pounds; bay leaves, 1 pound; cloves, i pound; ginger, A i>ound; chile pepper, | pound; coriander 
seed, i pound ; capers, 21 ounces. 

The fish are jiacked in kegs of uniform size, containing about 7 pounds. A small cjuantity of 
vinegar and a thin layer of the other ingredients are placed in the bottom of the keg, and a layer of 
fish, placed back upward, are put in and gently pressed down. Another small ([uantity of vinegar and 
thin layer of the other ingredients are then put in and another layer of fish, and so on until the keg 
is full, when a small quantity of vinegar is poured over the whole and the keg headed up. In order 
that the fish may be well ilavored they should be prepared some days before being placed on lh<! 
market. This length of time varies, according to the temperature, from about four days in summer to 
three or four weeks in winter. When projierly prepared the fish will readily keep a year or longer 
without spoiling. 

The preparation of herring in this manner was begun at Bastport, Maine, in 1874, 
and since then has been confined to the eastern portion of that State. Later it was 
found convenient to simply salt and dress the herring at Eastport and shij) them in 
barrels to New York City dealers, who pack them in kegs for the market, and this is 
the way in which the business is generally conducted at present. 

The tish are either shipped in the barrel in which they are being salted, or, as is 
more commonly the case, they are packed in shipping barrels after being dressed. In 
packing, each layer of fish is sprinkled with dry salt. On arrival in Xew York City 
they are subjected to the same treatment described above. The quantity of Eussian 
sardines prepared annually in this country amounts to about 60,000 7-pound kegs, 
worth about $27,000. 

The following is a popular method of preparing these herring on the shores of the 
Baltic Sea in Norway: 

The fish are placed in vinegar weakened by the addition of 25 per cent of water, and to which 
a particle of salt has been added. In this bath the fish remain for about 24 hours, when they are 
removed and the vinegar drained oflf. Some persons place the Hsb for 12 hours in vinegar which has 
not been weakened with water, the important point being that they must be talvcn out before the 
skin becomes flal)by. The fish are then carefully packed in kegs or jars with the following preserva- 
tives and spices, the quantities given being sufficient for 80 herring: Fine salt, 1 pound; powdered 
sugar or sometimes brown sugar, 1 pound; black pepper, i ounce; bay leaves, i ounce: saltpeter, i 
ounce; sandal, i ounce; cloves, J; ounce; ginger, ^ ounce; .Spanish hops, | ounce. Others use the 
following spices: Salt, 1 pound; sugar, i pound; allspice, 1 ounce: pepper, 1 ounce; cloves, i ounce; 
Spanish hops, i ounce. In this mixture the herring should be left for at least two months before 
using, and if the brine should leak otT, additional brine made of LUneburg salt should be added; and 
under favorable conditions the piodnct will keep for years. 

CHRISTIANIA ANCHOVIES, ETC. 

In the preparation of Christiauia anchovies many methods and flavoring ingredi- 
ents are used, depending on the skill and ideas of the curer and the markets for 
which the prei)aration is intended. The following is one of the most popular processes : 

The fresh sprat or anchovies are immersed iu briuo for 12 or 18 hours, 15 pounds of Liverpool 
salt being used for each 100 pounds of fish. On removal, the fish are drained in a sieve and then 
loosely packed iu a barrel, with the following ingredients, which have previously been finely crushed 
and well mixed: 4 pounds of Liiueburg salt, 6 units of pepper, (5 uuits of sugar, 6 units of Kuglisb 
8])iccs, 1 unit of cloves, 1 unit of nutmeg, aiul 1 unit of Spanish pepper. The anchovies remain 
s;iturated witli the.se ingredients for 2 weeks, when they are repacked tightly in kegs or barrels, 
being earel'ully arranged in layers, with the backs downward. \ (juantify of the ingredients above 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 469 

ininlidned is s))rinlileil over c:ich layer, with the addition of a few cut hay leaves or cherry heaves. 
At the Ixittniii and the top of the package is placed two whole hay leaves, hut hefore the top leaves 
are laid on, hriue is poureil over the fish. The barrels or kegs are then coopered and rotated daily 
for the first few days, and after that every other day for two or three weeks. 

The following process is also used to some extent: 

Tlie fish are salted for 24 hours and next immersed in sweetened water, 20 parts of water to 1 
part of sugar being used. The fish are then packed with a mixture of Liineburg salt with 90 units 
or parts of allspice, 60 nnits of pulverized sugar, 19 units of whole peppers, 15 units of cloves, an 
equal quantity of nutmeg or mace ami of hops {Origanum creticum), and some bay leaves. 

The followiug is a choice method of preparing " Miitjesheriag " in Germany: 

Fresh full herring, both spawners and melters, are well washed, and the gills, stomach, and 
intestines are removed in such a way as not to necessitate cutting the throat or abdomen, this being 
accomplished by pulling tiieni through the gill flap. The fish .are next immersed for 12 or 18 hours in 
a 7 ijer cent solution of wliiti -wine vinegar, from which they must be removed before the skin becomes 
flabby and be wijied dry and covered with a preparation composed of 2 pounds of salt, 1 pounil of 
powdered sugar, and a small quantity of saltpeter, this quantity being sullieient for 75 herring. The 
fi.sh are then p.acked in a barrel as upright as possible, in layers, with a sprinkling of salt over each. 
The followiug day the fish are returned with the original brine to the barrel, which is sealed. When 
there is not sufticient brine to fill the barrel, additiimal should be made of 1 part of the above 
mixture and 4 parts of water which has been boiled. 

Spiced herring [Gewilrzhering) are prepared in Germany in the manner above 
described, with the addition of spices mixed with the salt. The spices commonly used 
consist of 1 i>art of Spanish pepper,' 5 parts of white pepper, 4 parts of cloves, 2i 
l)arts of ginger, an e(|ual ([uantity of iiiu.stard, and ai particle of mace and of Spanish 
marjoram, with a few bay leaves scattered between the layers. 

PICKLED STURGEON. 

In the early history of New England pickled sturgeon was an article of home 
trathc, and considerable quantities of it were exported to the West Indies. During 
the early half of the present century comparatively little use was- made of sturgeon, 
either fresh or otherwise, but since 1800 there has developed a considerable demand 
for the flesh, especially when smoked. 

A small quantity of sturgeon is brine-salted along the Southern coast and on the 
Great Lakes in the manner described for swordfish, but the smokers take nearly all 
the surplus from the fresh-fish market. 

It is probable that the pickled sturgeon referred to in the early New England 
history was prepared in practically the same manner as is still in vogue among the 
Germans in the West, i. e., by boiling the meat and preserving it in weak vinegar 
flavored with suitable spices. 

In 1029 Governor Endicott, of the Massachusetts Colony, was "ordered to .send 
home to the company in London two or three hundred firkins of sturgeon and other 
flsh"; and by 1033 a considerable export trade existed in pickled sturgeon, most of 
which were caught in the Merriniac Kiver. An early description of the town of 
Newburyport, Mass., says: "At the mouth of the river stands Newbury, pleasantly 
situated, where abundance of sturgeon are taken, and pickled after the manner 
used in the Baltick." The Indians called that river Monomack, signifying sturgeon. 
In 10.50, " a keg of sturgeon, ten shillings," was among the charges for entertaining an 
ecclesiastical council at Salisbury. 



470 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

lu 1680 the couit licensed Thomas Eogers "to make sturgeon, ijrovided he shall 
present the court u bowl of good sturgeon every Michaelmas court." The business 
was (juite extensively carried on along the Merrimac River as late as 1733, and quite 
a large trade was established with England and the West Indies. They sold for 10 
or V2 shillings per keg, and one sale is recorded of "15 kegs of sturgeon for a small 
cask of rum and a cask of molasses." 

The genera] court of Massachusetts, at Boston May 7, 1C73, was petitioned by 
William Thomas for protection in putting up sturgeon. The petitioner stated: 

After sundry experiments and travels into forreigue countries upou great expense to bis estate 
liMtli tlirough ye blessing of God npou his industry therein, attained unto the act of boyling and 
iiickliug of stnrgeou by means whereof it is a couiniodity not ouly iu this country but in Kngliind 
and other parts for transportation and purposes of traffic for the procuring of goods more useful and 
needful to this country. (Massachusetts Maritime Manuscripts, ii, p. 3.) 

At the same session of the general court the following law was enacted: 

Forasmuch as sundry uuskilfull persons ha\'e of late yeares taken upon them to boyle, pickle, 
&. sell sturgeon for transportation, of which sundrj' keggs & other caske have prooved corrupt & 
wholly unservice.able, to the disappointment «.V damage of sundry merchants & others, as also to the 
debasement of that comodity, A repro.ach of the country, wch, if duely ordered, might be beueficlall 
to the inhabitants for transportation A otherwise, it is therefore ordered A enacted by the authority 
of this Court, and be it hereby ordered A enacted, that no jjerson whatsoever shall henceforth boyle, 
pickle, or packe np any sturgeon for sale in this jurisdiction but such as shall be licensed thereunto 
by the County Court where such persons inhabit, on jioeualty of forfeiture thereof, one halfe to the 
informer, and the other halfe to the county. And to the end there may be no fraud or abuse in the said 
comodity, every such licensed person shall brand marke all caske wherein it is packed svth the letters 
of his name; and that there he searchers appointed & sworne to view all sturgeon made heere, or 
imported, before it be sold or in kinde passed away, who shall sett their liuirke on such as they finde 
sound & sufficient in all respects, both .-is to the quallity of the sturgeon & gage of the caske; and 
that only such so marked as above shall be exported, on penalty of lorfeitnre of the whole value 
thereof; fl'or whose care A labour the sturgeon boyler or importer shall pay, for the vei wing A. heading 
thereof, after three shillings fower jieme per score for all kegs A firkins, from time to time. And if 
any shall counterfeit the sturgeon boylers or packers marke, they or he shall forfeit five pounds to the 
country for every such defect. And it is referred to the respective County Courts to license able A. 
fitt persons to boyle A pickle sturgeon for sale, as likewise to ajipoint searchers to view & marke the 
same as aforesaid. (Records of Massachusetts, vol. iv, part ii, page 553.) 

PICKLED EELS. 

Notwithstanding the abundance of eels in the United States, comparatively few 
are marketed except in a fresh condition, and even the demand in the fresh-flsh 
markets is rather small in many localities, owing to their snake-like appearance. In . 
New York City and a few other points some are pickled, and at various places they 
are smoked to a small extent. In Europe there are a number of valuable eel fisheries, 
the most celebrated of which is that of (Jommachio, near Venice, where pickled eels 
are i)repared in large quantities, as follows: 

The fresh eels are dressed and well cleiinsed with a brush ; they are placed in salt brine for 2 or 
3 hours, and on removal arc dried thoroughly with a towel, cut iu pieces of suitable length, immersed 
iu Provence oil, and cooked in a frying pan. On the cooking being completed, the eels are removed 
from the oil and allowed to cool upon blotting paper, and to the oil iu the ])au are added some white 
peppercorns, whole mace, bay leaves and lemon, .and a quantity of weakened vinegar, this mixture 
being cooked for 15 or 20 minutes. The pieces of eel are laid in glass jars or stone .jugs, and over 
them is poured the above mixture after it has cooled, the quantity of which must be siifficieut to 
coverall the pieces and half an inch more. The j.ars are then carefully scaled and put aw.ay in a 
cool place. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 471 

Another method of pickling eels is the following: 

The dressed eels are sprinkled with salt, which is soou rubbed or wiped off; then the eels, cut in 
pieces of suitable length, are spread with butter and broiled brown upon a gridiron. The pieces are 
next placed in suitable reeeptacKs, such as jiirs, kegs, etc., and among them is spread a mixture of 
bay leaves, whole cloves, pepper, English spices, and a little mace. A weight is placed on the eels to 
keep them compressed and the receptacle covered. After 24 hours the weight is removed, vinegar 
added to cover the pieces, and the receptacle tightly sealed. 

PICKLED SALMON, ETC. 

The following description of an old method of pickling .salmon, in nsein northern 
Europe to some extent at the present time, is from "A treatise on Ashing for herrings, 
cod, and salmon, and of curing, and preserving them," published in Dublin in 1800: 

As soon as the .salmon is caught they cut oft' the jowl, which they split into two parts, and cut 
the rest of it (as far down as below the anus) into ))ieces about 3 inches thick. The tail may be left 
long at pleasure. All these pieces are put into a large vessel full of fresh water, in which they are 
washeil with care; the water is changed three times, so as to take out all the blood. Each piece is 
fastencil separately to small laths, to prevent their touching one another. They then boil, apart, "as 
much water as may serve to cover all the fish, to which they add two bottles of Khenish wine, a bottle 
of good vinegar, some mace, cloves, pepper in grain, or long Portuguese pepper, coriander seed, 
thyme, leaves of laurel, a clove of garlic, and more or less salt, according as they intend that the 
salmon should keep for a longer or shorter time. When this water boils they put the pieces of salmon 
into it, jilacing the. jowls uppermost, as they boil sooner than the rest, and when the whole is boiled 
they take it out and let it drip on a linen cloth. When tlie water has cooled they pass it through a 
tearce, or sieve; then they put the salmon, in ]>ieces, into an earthen Jar or pot, u])on a bed of leaves 
of laurel, and throw between the pieces a little salt and some slices of lemon. They then pour upon 
it the sauce in which the salmon was boiled, until it is iiuite covered, and fill up the vessel with the 
Jowls and tails; after which they pour good oil upon it and close the vessel. Salmon prepared in this 
manner will keep a considerable time. 

Among tbe proprietary compositions for preserving fish in vinegar, spices, etc., 
was one patented* in 1881 by Paul Brick, of Cape Elizabeth, Me. This method was 
intended particularly for mackerel, but it is claimed to be equally applicable to other 
species of fresh lisli. Brick's process is as follows: 

The fish after being scaled and dressed are cut into pieces of about 2 inches in length, cleansed 
.and pla<ed for about 12 hours in a cold sauce of pickle made of 1 gallon of strong cider vinegar, 
one-half ounce of green parsley, eight bay leaves, 4 ounces of onions, one-half pound of salt, and 1 ounce 
of the following spices mixeil in ecjual parts: Mustard seed, cloves, allspice, mace, cinnamon, and 
pepper. At the end of 12 hours the (ish are removed from this pickle and placed in air-tight pots or jars 
with another sauce or pickle I'ompo.sed of similar ingredients to the first and in the same jiroportion, 
and to which have been added 1 gill of capers, a half-pint of olive oil, 1 gill of Worcester sauce, 
2 li-mons, and a small quantity of extract of anchovy, and allowed to simmer for 5 or G hours at a tem- 
perature of about 140"^ F., when the jars are sealed. 

From Bayerische Fischervi- Zeifung, No. 30, Munich, 1885, is taken the following 
method of pickling fish, applicable to sturgeon, salmon, and other large species: 

The tish is cut into piec(^s, strongly salted down, fried rather quickly in Initter and oil, then laid 
upon a ]date, each piece by itself. Before the pieces have cooled oft' they are put in layers in a 
porcelain or glass vessel, with some "tan liquor" (beize). This covers all the pieces. To 1 kilo of 
fish a sauce is made from 3 deca of the finest olive oil and finely sliced onions. This is cooked until 
the onions turn yellow. To this is then added heated strong vinegar, whole spices (white pepper, 
cloves, and .lamaica pepper), a few bay leaves, and shalot. All this is cooked together and then put 
away to cool. Enough vinegar is used to make sufficient pickle aiul also to cover well the pieces of 



'See Letters Patent No. 241187, dated May 10, 1881. 



472 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

iish. The vessel has either a tight cover or it is tied up with paper. When some of the pieces are 
taken out and there is not euongh "tan li(|UOr" in the vessel to cover the remaining pieces, either 
some more of this liquor is added or a sulScient amount of vinegar is used. 

With a view to softening the bones of small pickled fish so that they may be freely 
masticated, a method was introduced about thirty years ago in which the dressed fish 
are placed in a suitable receptacle with a mixture of vinegar, salt, cloves, and cayenne 
pepper. The receptacle is then closed and the contents subjected to a temperature 
of about 170"^ P. for 24 hours.* The acid of the vinegar neutralizes or dissolves the 
phosphate of lime and the heat serves to reduce the coherence of the particles of 
animal matter contained in the bones, so that the latter may be masticated and swal- 
lowed without inconvenience. This process was used to a limited extent only and is 
uo longer in vogue. 

PICKLED OYSTEKS. 

In pickling oysters, clams, mussels, etc., the mollusks are usually cooked a short 
period either before or after removal from the shell, cooled, and placed in glass jars or 
other receptacles with vinegar, spices, etc., according to the ideas of the preparer. 

A generation or two ago large quantities of pickled oysters were put up for use in 
and about New York City, the consumption being especially large during the Clirist- 
mas holidays; but their popularity has greatly decreased, and during recent years 
probably not over 50,000 have been pickled annually, mostly in New York City, to fill 
special orders. The choicest oysters are generally used. The process is as follows: 

The raw oysters are removed from the shells in the usnal manner, as much as practicable of the 
li(|nor being saved. The oysters, with their liiinor, are boiled in an open kettle for 5 to 'M minutes, 
according to the length of time that will elapse before they .are to be used. It is important that the 
boiling be reduced as much as practicable for good keeping, since the longer they are boiled the 
smaller and hardir they bcciuue and the Uiore difficult to llavor. When boiled sufficiently the oysters 
and li(|Uor are separated, the lormor spread on shelves to cool and the latter strained and mixed with 
sufficient vinegar to impart the llMVor desired, to which may bo added mace, lemon, and other flavoring 
ingredients, if desired. When both the oysters and liijuor are iiuite cool, they .are combined and sealed 
up in glass. jars or other suitable receptacles and stored in a cool jdacc If the cooling of the oysters 
and liquor after boiling be not done separately, the oysters become soft and disintegrate, aftecting both 
the apx>earance and keeping cjualities. 

An objection to the above method of pickling is that when the oysters are cooked 
they become shriveled and somewhat tiusightly, and if merely scalded the vinegar 
soou acts upon the tissues, rendering them soft and equally unsightly. 

In 1870 the following process of preparing "jellied oysters" was patented! by 
Katherine L. Jewell, of New York: 

A quantity of freshly opened oysters are slightly cooked so as to plump them. They are immedi- 
ately placed in the vessel in which they are to be marketed and covered with a lii|uid prepared in the 
following manner: A suitable quantity of oyster liquor containing a few fresh oysters is boiled until 
the liqnoris so far inspissated as to form a jelly (sididify) wh<'n cooled. This liquor is strained and 
while warm is mixed with its weight of heated vinegar, to which spices are added to suit the taste. 
This liquor is poured over the plumped oysters so as to cover them, and it will, when cooled, form a 
jelly sufficiently tirm to support the oysters and form with them a senns(did uuiss impervious to air. 

The small oyster crabs {Finnotheres ostreum) found at times in the oysters are 
sometimes pickled at Chesapeake ports in a manner similar to that applied to oysters, 
but they are so scarce and the price for them fresh is so high that the quantity pickled 
is very small. 

♦Letters Patent No. 70135, Novembers, 1867. t Letters Patent No. 215628, May 20, 1879. 



PRESEEVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 473 

PICKLED CLAMS, MUSSELS, SCALLOPS, ETC. 

The process of pickling clams, mussels, <iud scallops is quite similar to that 
employed iu preserving oysters, diftering principally in the manner of removal from 
the shell and iu cooking. The trade in these i)roducts is very limited and is centered 
about 'New York City. 

Clams or (piahogs are generally steamed in the shell, a basketful being placed in 
the steam box at a time, where they remain for 10 to 30 minutes, according to the time 
for which they are to be kept. On removal the clams and liquor are cooled separately, 
the latter being lirst strained and flavored with vinegar, lemon, mace, etc., and then 
combined and sealed up in suitable rece[)tacles. The object in steaming tlie clams is 
to avoid cutting and bruising tlie meats, which would result if they were opened raw. 

The shells of mussels are usually covered with dirt, which sliould be thoroughly 
rinsed off. The mollusks are then generally scalded in brackish water iu the shell for 
10 or 15 minutes aiul on removal therefrom the dark tilameut or beard is pulled off, 
when the meats and li(iuor are cooled separately and treated similarly to the process 
of pickling oysters or clams, the flavoring ingredients being selected according to the 
individual fancies, but consisting usnally of mace and cloves iu addition to vinegar. 

The quantity of ingredients .suitable for 100 mussels is about a pint of white 
vinegar, an ounce of mixed cloves and allspice, with a large re<l pepper and a few 
blades of mace. These should bo boiled with the liquor from the mussels, and when 
cooled the whole is poured over the meats. The quantity of vinegar used is small, 
only sufficient for flavoring. While almost any vinegar might be used,.'white wine 
or cider vinegar is preferred. Pickled mussels should be kept in a cool, dark place, 
for if not well excluded from the light they will turn dark. 

PICKLED LOBSTERS. 

When a lobster dealer is overstocked with boiled lobsters or with lobsters so 
weak that they must be boiled to save them, or less frequently when a fisherman 
desires to dispose of short lobsters caught contrary to local regulations, the usual 
method is to pickle them. For this iiurpose the live lobsters are first boiled and the 
meats extracted, 100 pounds of rouTid lobsters yielding about 25 pounds of meat. The 
meat in the tail and the large i)art of the claw is the only portion used, that in 
the knuckle being discaixled, siiu'e the quantity is so small that it does not pay for the 
work of removing it. One man can usually pick out 100 jiounds of meat in three 
hours. The meat is immersed in vinegar for two or three days, then replaced in 
fresh vinegar and placed in suitable packages, which are usually glass jars with cork 
stoppers when prepared by the dealers, and barrels, kegs, or stoue jars when the 
pickling is done by the fishermen. White-wine vinegar is preferred to cider vinegar, 
since the latter has a tendency to make the meat dark, and the vinegar may be weak- 
ened to suit tlie taste desired unless it is proposed to keep the lobsters a long time. 
If carefully protected in tight packages, the pickled meat will keep several months 
under ordinary conditions. It sells for about 12 or 15 cents per pound, representing 
an equivalent of 2 or 3 cents per pound for the live lobsters. 



474 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS BY SMOKING. 



Fish and other food products have been preserved by smokiugfroiu time immemorial. 
The process was well known in Europe during the fourteenth century, and it appears 
to be used by savage tribes of many difl'erent localities. It consists in exposing the 
articles fresh or, as is more frequently the case, slightly salted, to the action of smoke 
'produced by smolderinj^' wood, bark, or sawdust. Its efliciency depends upon the 
drying as well as the action upon the texture of the fish of the pyroligneous acid pro- 
duced by the smoldering, which at the same time imparts an agreeable flavor to the 
jjroduct. Smoking is practiced to some extent by nearly all nations, especially in 
curing oily species of fish, snch as herring, haddock, halibut, salmon, etc. 

In the United States smoked flsh are cured either round, eviscerated, split and 
beheaded, or cut into small pieces with or without the skin removed, according to the 
species. Small sea herring, cured as hard lierring, and biickliug, alewives, fresh 
mackerel, etc., are usually not dressed at all; bloater herring, lake herring, eels, salt 
mackerel, flounders, etc., are usually split down the belly to the vent and eviscerated; 
salmon and haddock are usually split so as to lay out Hat like dried codfish, and 
halibut, sturgeon, and sometimes catfish, are cut up into small pieces before smoking. 

After being dressed the flsh are at once struck with salt, the length of the salting 
differing according to the species being prepared, but ranging from an hour or two 
to a week or more, and in case of halibut, salmon, mackerel, etc., they may be smoked 
after being salted a year or two, the excess of salt being removed by soaking in water. 
On removal from the pickle the flsh are cleansed and attached to smoking sticks and 
after drying for a few hours are placed in the smokehouse, or, in case of halibut, tliey 
may be dried on cod flakes for a day or so and then strung on sticks and placed in the 
smokehouse. All flsh cure better and present a neater appearance when cured, if 
dried in the open air a few hours before being placed in the smokehouse. 

Both cold-smoking and hot-smoking are employed, the result of these two ])roc- 
esses being quite dittereut. In the former, the flsh are suspended at a distance from 
the fire and smoked at a temperature less than 80° F.; in the latter process the flsh 
are jiartly or entirely cooked while smoking, being hung near the fire. In cold-smoking 
the exposure may be only a few hours, as in the case of salmon, or it may continue 
for weeks, as in curing hard herring, the length of exposure depending on the article 
prepared and the time that will probably elapse before it is consumed, whereas 
hot-smoking is always completed within it few hours, usually within three or four. 
Gold-smoking is used i)rincipally in the United States, England, Norway, Holland, 
Russia, and Scotland. It is applied to herring, alewives, lialibut, haddock, salmon, 
salt mackerel, flouiidois, butter flsh, etc. hi (Jermany and Sweden hot smoking is the 
more important, but it is not extensively employed in the United States, being confined 
mainly to New York, Chicago, Milwaukee, and other centers of foreign population, 
the species so treated being sturgeon, lake herring, wliitefish, eels, catfish, fresh 
mackerel, etc. 



PRESEEVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 475 

The style of the smokehouse depends on the particular product for which it is 
inteuded. The large houses used for smoking herring, halibut, and Finnan haddie 
are described in the paragraphs relating to the preparation of those respective 
products. The houses for smoking sturgeon, lake herring, eels, etc., are generally 
much smaller. Three or four smoking chambers are usually ranged side by side and 
are commonly built of brick with 8-iuch walls with a ceiling of tin or zinc. The 
height ranges from 6 to l-i feet, inside measurement, the width 3i to 5 feet, and 
the deiHh or length to 12 feet. In most cases provision is made for smoking 
only three rows of flsh, the lowest of which is from 3i to OA feet above the floor, 
and the others at intervals of 13 to 18 inches above that, the uppermost one being 
from 8 to 18 inches below the ceiling, so that tlie tish will be removed somewhat 
from the body of hot air which accumulates at the top. In the ceiling there are 
eight or ten small holes, an iucli or so in diameter, leading to the flue or chimney. 

Most of the houses are of the larger size above given, and when smaller sizes are 
used it is sometimes necessary to protect the fish from the heat, or they are liable to 
become too hot. This may be done by placing two small stands of bricks, about l-l 
inches high, on the floor and building the fire between these, and when necessary to 
protect the fish from the heat a metallic pan is placed over tlie fire, the ends resting 
on the brick piles. In places where the smoking is of small extent the houses are 
generally cheaply constructed, and some curers do their smoking in an old dry-goods 
box, the top of which is covered with boards, mats, or sacking. The fish are placed 
on sticks, and these are placed crosswise inside the box. This is suitable only for 
hot-smoking, and to adapt the box to cold smoking the smoke is admitted to the box 
at its lower end through a trough or channel of boards. Years ago the old-fashioned 
open kitchen chimneys were used for hot-smoking by arranging the sticks of fish 3 
or 4 feet above the fireplace. This form of chimney is being gradually discarded, but 
a few are still used in smoking fish for home consumption. 

The hogshead smokehouses used iu a few localities for hot-smoking sturgeon, 
eels, herring, etc., are quickly and cheaply constructed and well adapted to the pur- 
pose. An old sugar or molasses hogshead, with the head removed, is placed on end on 
the ground, 2 or 3 bushels of earth being first removed so as to form a pit for the 
fire. For convenieuce in placing the fuel and in making the fire, 12 or 14 inches of the 
lower end of one or two of the staves are removed. Across the top of the hogshead 
in the middle is an iron rod or a piece of old gas pipe, on which rests one end of the 
smokesticks containing the fish, the other end of the sticks resting on the chime of the 
hogshead. After the fires are built and the fish x^laced in the hogsliead, the latter is 
covered with old sacking, such as discarded salt sacks, to confine the smoke. The 
capacity of each of these hogshead smokehouses is 200 pounds of fish at one time. 
They are intended especially for hot-smoking, and a mixture of oak and hickory wood 
is used for fuel. Usually two or three hogsheads are ranged side by side, and for pro- 
tection against the weather they should be inclosed within a shed or house. 

. The foreign smokehouses are quite similar to our own. The following is a descrip 
tion of two, the first being situated at Masnedsund, and the other on the island of 
Bornholm, in Denmark: 

The oven, with the fireplace below, is feet broad, 5A feet high, and 3 feet deep. Iu front there 
are iron doors. There is room in the oven for three rows of poles; the distance fiom the fire to the 
lowest row is ?<l feet, .anil the distance between the rows 14 inches. At the top the oven can be dosed 
by a lid, which opens outside, toward the back wall of the chimney. The chimney projects about a 



476 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

foot beyond the frout of the ovcii, aud tliereforo forms an opening for the escapo of the siiperfluons 
smoke. The oven is about 6 feet high, and grows narrower toward the top, which is about 1 foot in 
diameter. The chimney is held together by a strong iron bar. When the fish have been dried in the 
air, smoking may be done on all three irons, therefore in three rows. The lid at the tup is then ki'pt 
closed. If, however, the oven is to be used for drying, the two upper rows are used for this purpose, 
and in that case the lid must remnin open, and the opening is covered by bags or pieces of board. 
Gradually, as the two lower rows have been smoked, the two upper ones are put a row farther down, 
and a new row is hung on the upper iron. 

A larger smokehouse iu Svanike, on the island of Bornholin, is about 18 yards square and 4 yards 
high, while the chimney is (i feet high and 4 feet broad. There are seven smoke rooms, or ovens, for 
hot-smoking, and one for cold-smoking. The herring are hung in pairs over poles 3 feet long, one 
herring's head being stuck through the gills of the other and coming out at the mouth. If necessary, 
a thin stick of wood serves as a skewer. On each pole about 40 herring can be hung, which must not 
touch each other. The poles are arranged crosswise over square frames, 3 feet broad and 7 feet long, 
which are run into tlie oven on ledges. Each frame contains 26 poles, and about 1,040 herring can be 
smoked in it at the same time. The entire smokehouse can contain 22,400 herring, which are smoked 
by the hot method. The lowest frame is about ',i feet above the fireplace. In the cold-;imoke chimney 
about 12,000 herring can be smoked. 

A few smokebouses, which are devoted principally to smoking river herring or 
alewives, are constructed with the fire-box outside of the house containing the fish, to 
avoid heating or burning the lish aud to more carefully regulate the smoking. One of 
these is constructed as follows: 

A foundation is made of brick, 9 feet square, 2 feet deep, and 12 inches thick, on which rest 
brick walls 8 inches thick and 1.5 feet high on the rear or furnace side, and 16 feet on tlie front or 
entrance side, giving the roof a pitch of one foot in eight. About 9 feet from the floor there is set 
into the walls, ou the inside, a ledge of iron, on the front as well as on the rear wall, on which rest 
pieces of scantling for holding the herring sticks. These are followed by other ledges 12 inches 
apart until within a few inches of the top of the rear wall. The house is ventilated by a door in the 
roof, 12 by 15 inches in area, which may be opened or closed by means of a long rod. The furnaces are 
constructed in the rear of, and adjacent to, the smokehouse, and are 3 feet high, the end and division 
walls 4i inches thick, the four grates 20 inches wide and 28 inches deep, and the doors of cast iron 11 by 
12 inches in area. The smoke generated passes into four inclined flues, 8 inches square, connecting with 
the smoke or fish room. These smoke flues are 6 feet long and project two-thirds across the width of 
the house. In the top of each there are two openings which may be stopped with caps when but 
little smoke is needed, or each may be covered with a smoke spreader, which consists of a circular 
]>Lece of tin or iron supported by Avirea attached to a rim made to fit the openings, and is 12 or 15 
inches iu diameter and set about 18 inches above the tin to which it is attached. In such a building 
5,000 river herring may be smoked iu 3 days. 

The material which is used for producing the smoke consists of some hard wood 
or hard-wood sawdust. Oak or hickory mixed with sawdust is the most common 
in this country, but a variety of other woods are used, depending on the facilities for 
obtaining it as well as its suitableness for the purpose. In the extensive herring 
smokehouses at Eastport, Maine, white birch is generally preferred, but driftwood 
which has been soaked with salt water is used to a considerable extent. At Gloucester 
and Boston ship carpenter's chips of oak or oak edgings, with sawdust to smother the 
flames, are used principally. In New York City mahogany aud cedar sawdust ai'e 
used extensively, and at Buffalo maple wood is used exclusively. At Sandusky and 
Detroit the smokers use hickory wood and sawdust. Shavings and sawdust of pine 
wood are not very desirable, as they are apt to impart a resinous flavor to the fish. 
Dry chips of oak are used in Holland, and when those are not readily obtained, poplar, 
birch, or ash are used. In Denmark the fuel used is alder wood slightly moistened 
so as to make more smoke, and oak and beech sawdast is used to keep the flames 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 477 

down when they blaze up too high. The smokehouse should always be warm and 
dry before the tish are put iu, as the development of steam is apt to injure the fish. 
Even when using the same kind of wood, the length of time requireil to smoke an 
article of uniform grade depends largely on the condition of tlie weather, much 
longer time being required when the weatlier is sultry than when it is clear and windy. 

The length of time that smoked hsh will keep depends on the extent of the salt- 
ing and smoking, and on temperature conditions. Hard herring will keep for a year 
or more; smoked halibut and haddock will keei) only a few weeks, and those products 
smoked only a few hours are not likely to keep more tliau a week or so. If the 
weather be cold and dry, smoked flsh keep very much longer than when it is sultry. 
Some curers, especially halibut smokers, prevent a liability to mold by sprinkling a 
small quantity of fine dry salt over the fish after smoking; others use compositions of 
boracic acid, salicylic acid, and other antiseptics sold under various trade names, but 
the best preventive is to keep the fish in a cool, dry place and dispose of them as 
soon as practicable after smoking. 

Not content with the somewhat slow process of smoking, some dealers have intro- 
duced methoils by which they reduce its extent, or else do away with it altogether, 
thus saving in time and in loss of weight of fish. Tlieir process consists in coating 
the flsh with a form or composition of pyroligneous acid to impart a smoked flavor, 
and a coloring substance to give the fish tlie appearance of having been smoked. It 
is gratifying to know that these devices have not been favorably received in the 
United States. 

For the puri)ose of preparing a choice product especially for exportation to warm 
climates, the tbllowing process* of treating smoked tish has been introduced, but as yet 
its application in this country is of small extent: 

The tish, after being smoUetl, are cooled oif and placed in layers in wooden barrels. Between 
each layer of fish a layer of dry salt is placed iu a quantity of abnut 6 pounds of salt to 100 pounds 
of iish. The barrels, after having been filled, are kept in a cool place until the fish have become 
completely hard in couse(inenee of the salt combiniuj; with the natural fat of the tish. This process 
of hardening must take place tlirongh the whole body of each tish, and can be ascertained bj' pressing 
the fish with the finger, which must leave no recess or impression whatever on the surface of the fish. 
After the process of hardening has taken place, which will be, according to the sort and size of fish, 
from within 3 to 15 days, the barrels are filled up with brine and tlien closed by a cover fitting tightly. 
Tlie ])reparation of the brine must be executed carefully in the following manner: Filtered water is 
boiled with salt to a saturated solution, which latter is allowed to cool otf, after which it is skimmed 
and drawn otf as far as it appears fully clear and pure. If the brine is not carefully prepared, as 
above stated, the fish will not keep for so long a time, which will likewise not be the case if the 
process of hardening, before de8<'ribed, has not completely taken place. Fish prepared in the mode 
described will keep for many months and can be sent to hot climates without danger of spoiling. 
For making such preserved fish eatalde it must be taken from the barrel and placed iu fresh water to 
remove its rigiduess. This will, aecordiug to the size of fish, take place within from 3 to 8 hours, 
when the salt will be sufficiently removed from the fat. The fish is then dried in the open air and 
will now fully resemble newly smoked tish. By first taking the fish iu their natural condition and 
smoking them the juices are retained and the fat of the fish is brought to such condition that tlie salt 
when applied will re.adily combine with it and make the fish perfectly hard and solid, especially cm 
the exterior. After the fish are thus smoked and hardened with salt they are brought to a condition 
in which liriue will simply preserve and protect them from atmospheric inllueuces without changing 
their character iu any material way. By thus treating the fish they are preserved without having 
the entire body of the fish permeated with salt, as after being smoked the dry salt in which they are 
packed combines chiefly with the fatty substances and forms a hard exterior surface which is not 
nuich peuetr.ated by the brine. 



' See Letters Patent No. 35266G, dated November 16, 1886. 



478 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

For use iu smoking cbuuks or ijortious of large flsb, such as sturgeon, previous 
to ciinuiug them, a wire disk-form receptacle, iu which the chunks are compressed to a 
size adapted to the cans in which they are to be placed, is here described: 

This receptiule is so airangcil tliat it may be rotated during tlie sinokiug process, thus causing 
the dripping juices to pass through the mass. The product of the usual method of smoking docs not 
remain sufiiciently juicy for canning and the irregular chunks retjuire a large amount of oil or other 
liquid to till the interstices within the can. The receptacle is drum-sliaped, with n cross section equal 
to the cross section of the can wherein the product is to bo packed. It has a movable or inner head 
and a spring clasp for forcing the head inward, and is so suspended that it may be frequently rotated 
on the spring clasp. In c.irryiug out tliis jirocess the sturgeon or other fish is cut up into suitable 
pieces, salted in brine for the proper length of time, and tlicu neatly pl.aced iu tlie drum until the latter 
is filled. Tlie head and clasp is then placed iu position and the drum suspended in the smoking-room. 
While subjected to the action of the smoke, and as the fish becomes more and more compact, it 
assumes tlie shape of a disk with comparatively flat ends. During the smoking the receptacle is 
turned from time to time so that the juice that settles at the bottom is frequently brought to the top and 
again compelled to ilow through the mass. These disks may be much thinner than the height of tlie can 
iu which they are placed, in whicli case two or three or more are superimposed until the can is tilled.* 

SMOKED HERRING. 

The process of smoking is almost as important in the cure of herring as the use 
of salt iu preserving codflsli. This was one* of the earliest marine products to which 
smoking was applied, and at present the various species of this family are probably 
smoked in greater (luantities than all other species condjined. By varying the process 
of smoking different products are obtained, almost wholly unlike iu appearance, flavor, 
and keeping qualities, instances of which are the hard or red herring and the bloater 
herring, both i>repared from the sea herring of tiie New England coast ( Glupea haren- 
gus). Tlie former are smoked three or four weeks, nutil (juite dry, while the latter are 
exposed to the smoke for only a few hours and will keei> but a limited time; the 
sooner they are eaten the better their flavor. Kippered herring differ from bloater 
herring principally in that tbey are split and eviscerated before being smoked. The 
biickling or piclding prepared in New York City from frozen Newfoundland herring 
are somewhat similar to the bloaters of Boston, differing principally iu that they are 
smoked at a higher temperature and for a much shorter time. A few Labrador herring 
pickled in barrels are smoked iu New York City, and along the Great Lakes and in 
the near-by localities quantities of lake herring are smoked. The smoked herring of 
the Southern States is made from the alewife ( Glupea rfirnalis), so abundant in rivers 
of that region. The methods of smoking applied to each of these various species will 
be described iu detail in the following pages. 

HARD HERRING. 

The original process of smoking hard herring, or red herring, as practiced iu the 
United States, is said to have been derived from Scotland by way of Digby, Nova 
Scotia. In 1795 a Scotch fisherman located at the last-named place and devoted his 
attention to smoking herring as practiced in his native country, the product being 
sold in Nova Scotia and the adjacent parts of New England under the name of 
"Digby chickens." Others went into the business and tlie process gradually extended 
to the United States, the business being established at Bastport in 180S and at Lubec 
in 1812. The trade gradually increased until the beginning of the Washington treaty 
in 1873, being particularly extensive during the civil war. The average annual output 



" See Letters Patent No. 423545, in favor of Max Ams. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 479 

/ 

from 1815 to 1S72 was not less than 500,000 boxes. The Washington treaty had a very 
serions effect ou the smoked-herring industry, the product in Maine in 1880 being only 
370,(il5 boxes, or 4,431,111 pounds, worth $99,973: whereas importations increased 
from l,029,0!t5 pounds, valued at $34,C70, in 1874, to 10.441,355 pounds, worth $129,034, 
in 1885. After the abrogation of the treaty in 1885 the business again reached its 
former proportions and has been more exteusi\ e during the past few years than ever 
before. The annual product amounts to about 1,300,000 boxes, containing 6,500,000 
pounds of cured fish, the wholesale value of which ai)proximates $115,000. 

The smoking of hard herring in the United States is confined principally to the 
State of ]Maine and to Washington, Hancock, and Knox counties, the business being- 
centered at Eastport and Lubec. The mature Clupca harengus is used, taken almost 
wholly by weirs, the season extending generally i'rom the first of September until late 
in December. The smoking is done principally by the persons catching the fish, who 
also depend partly on farming for a livelihood. Usually several of them own a weir in 
common, dividing the herring equally and preparing them on their separate premises. 

The following desc.rii>tiou of the process of smoking hard herring at Eastport and 
Lubec is from an account of the industry by Mr. x\usley Hall :* 

Description of smokehouses. — The sraokehonse is generally only one of a number of buildings used 
in carrying on the smoketl-herring industry. In addition to it there are sheds and shops of various 
kinds, in which is done a variety of work incidental to the business. Tliere is a shed for pickling 
and salting herring, a sliop in which tlie smoked-herring boxes are made and where the herring are 
packed, and there is sometimes a cooper shop for making herring barrels. The buildings are usually 
located on a wharf or near the sliore for convenience in landing the lish from tlie boats. The frame of 
the smokeliousc is covered witli boards and made sulbciently tight to prevent the smoke from escap- 
ing. There are lioard windows iu either end and ventilators in tlio roof. The latter are provided by 
arranging thi^ lioards ou either side of the ridgepole so tli.at they can lie raised or lowered by means 
of cords attached to levers. The building is entered by large doors in the end. The value of the 
smokehouses, inclndiug the .sheds and equipment.s, varies from $60 to $3,500 each ; lor an entire stand 
of buildings the average value is from about $200 to $500. 

In the early days of the industry the smokehouses were very inexiiensive, being built of slabs 
obtained at small cost from the sawmills iu the vicinity. A very few of these primitive structures, 
now almost a century old, are still iu use, but in most instances they have been replaced by better 
ones. As the business increased larger smokehouses were built, in order to make it possible to meet 
tlie greater demand for the product. The largest one now iu use is at Lubec. The length of the 
building is 231 feet, 115 feet of which is included iu the smokehou.se and 110 feet in sheds of various 
kinds. The width is 25 feet, the length of posts 10 feet, and the height of the ridgepole 29 feet. 
The smokehouse is divided into three compartments, each having 10 "bays'' or spaces in which to 
hang herring, and its capacity is about 45,000 boxes of mediuai or ')0,000 boxes of large herring. It 
is as large as three smokehouses of the ordinary size. The smokehouses have no lloors, as the area 
has to be used for the (ires. The interior is arranged with a .series of vertical rows of 2 by 4 inch 
scantlings. The spaces between the rows are termed "bays" and are 38 inches iu width. The 
scantlings in each row begin near the ridgepole and extend horizontally crosswise of the building, 
each one being placed from 13 to 14 inches below the other, to within 6 or 8 feet of the ground. Iu 
smokehouses of the average size there are usually 10 "bays," and the capacity is about 15,000 boxes 
of medium or 20,000 boxes of large herriug. 

Eiliiipmeut. — The only equipment used exclusively iu a smokehouse are the herring sticks. A 
large number of these are necessary iu the larger houses, as it requires on an average about two sticks 
to each box of lierring. The sticks are prepared at the sawmills in long strips. The size of the sticks 
as they come from the mill is one-half inch square for medium and five-eighths inch square for 
large herring. After being cut into lengths of 3 feet 4 inches each, the edges taken oil', and one end 
sharjieneil they are ready for use. They cost at the rate of about -$3 per 1,000 at the mill, and are 
estimated to be worth from $4 to $5 per 1,000 after beiug made at the smokehouse. 

*"The herring industry of the Passamaquoddy region, Maine," by Ausley Hall, United States 
Fish Commission Report for 18'JG, pj). 454-4G3. 



1:80 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

The pickliug and salting shed Is supplied with wooden tanks for nse in pickling the herring. 
These are from 7 to 8 feet long, 5 feet wide, and 31 feet deep, having a capacity of about 4 hugsheails, 
or 'M barrels, of herring each. From 2 to 9 tanks are required in each salting shed. In many instances 
hogsheads are used instead of tanks. There is also a variety of other utensils, such as tubs, baskets, 
shovels, and "herring horses." The latter consists of an oblong wooden frame having four legs, the 
sides extending far enough beyond the end to serve as handles. It is used to hang the herring on to 
dry after they are strung on the sticks and before putting them into the smokehouse. Its capacity is 
from 25 to 30 sticks of herring. The cost of the whole outtit for a smokehouse and salting shed varies 
from $50 to $500. * » * 

IJvrriiii/ Klilhed. — The herring utilized for smokiug and salting are derived chiefly from the weiis 
ill Passamaiiuoddy Hay and its tributary waters. In 1805 the quantity obtained from the American 
weirs in the bay for these purposes was 5,903 hogsheads, valued at $12,121, and from the Canadian 
weirs 5,571 hogsheads, which cost $20,03li. Tlio average value per hogshead of the former was $2, and 
of the latter about $3.60. This difference is explained in a measure by the fact that a largo part of 
the American fish was smoked by the fishermen, who carried them to the smokehouses in their own 
boats, while those from the Canadian weirs were collected at the rate of $1 per hogshead. A consid- 
erable quantity of herring was also obtained from other sources. From Machias Bay there were 1,296 
hogsheads, costing $4,605; from Grand Manan, 935 hogsheads, $2,323; from the Magdalen Islands, 768 
hogsheads, $4,669, and from Newfoundland, 174 hogsheads, $1,740. The total quantity used was 
14,647 hogsheads, or 7.3,235 barrels, the cost of which, landed at the smokehouses, w.as $45,494. Of 
these, 12,148 hogsheads, costing -$36,215, were smoked and packed in boxes, and 2,499 hogsheads, costing 
$9,279, were salted in liarrels. The herring from Passamacj noddy Bay, Machias Bay, and (Jraud 
Manan are received in a fresh condition, while those from the Magilalen Islands and Newfoundland 
are cured on board the vessels and need no further salting after they arrive at the smokehouses. The 
Newfomidland herring are used largely in preparing the grade of smoked herring termed "bloaters," 
but those from the Magdalen Islands do not serve that purpose so well and are generally either 
packed in barrels as round herring or smoked aud packed in regular boxes lengthwise. 

rickliiig. — When the fresh herring intended for smoking are landed at the salfing sheds, they 
are immediately put into tlie pickling tanks, which have first been partially filled with a weak pickle. 
I'lie pickle is made of salt water with about It bushels of Liverpool salt or a smaller quantity of Cadiz 
or other coarse salt in each tank. The salt is stirred in the water until it is wholly dissolved. If the 
lish are poor the water is sometimes used without the salt being added. The iiuantity of fish which is 
at first put into the tank is geuerally from 2 to 3 hogsheads, or enongh to be of sufScient weight to 
rest, or, as the fishermen term it, "ground" on the bottom. A light layer of salt, or about one-half 
oushel, is then distributed over them, after which another layer of fish of from 1 to 2 barrels is put 
ill. This is again covered with a layer of salt rather heavier than the first, being from 1 to li bushels. 
The remainder of the fish necessary to till the tank is then put in and covered with from 3 to 5 l>ushel8 
of salt. Each tank when filled contains 4 hogsheads of fish, aud the i|uantity of salt used on them 
varies from 6 to 9 liushels, according to their size and fatness aud the coudition of the weather. It is 
also necessary to have the greater part of the salt at the top of the tank, so it will not work down 
through the fish and lodge at the bottom without being dissolved. In that case the fish at the bottom 
are liable to become too salt and those at the top not salt enough. For smoking purposes the fish are 
pickled in a round condition as they come from the water. When hogsheads are nsed instead of tanks 
the quantity of fish and salt in each layer is regulated to correspond with the capacity of the hogshead. 

The small herring are generally allowed to remain submerged in the pickle from 24 to 36 hours, 
and the larger ones, especially if they are very fat, about 48 hours, and sometimes a longer period. 
If the herring are small and not fat the length of time required for them to "strike" may not exceed 
from 12 to 15 hours. Fish will also absorb salt more readily in warm than in cold weather, and if 
they have been caught a few hours before being salted they do not require so long a time in the 
pickle as when immediately taken from the water. 

When the fish have been ]iroperly "struck" or salted, if the weather is fine, so as to afford them 
an opportunity to dry before being put in the smokehouse, they are taken out of the pickle; but it 
sometimes happens that the weather is rainy, aud they have to remain in pickle much longer than 
would otherwise be necessary. As a result they become more or less oversalted. In such cases, when 
favorable weather returns, they are taken out and put in tubs of salt water to bo freshened or " soaked 
out." Newfoundland and Magdalen herring, which are heavily salted on board the vessel when 
caught, invariably require to be treated in this manner before being smoked. Generally about lour 
tubs of water are used, which are in succeasion filled with fish. As soon as the last tub is filled the 



PEESEKVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 481 

fish arc takmi nut of tUo first (ine and then out of the others in regiUar order, each tub beino- at once 
relilk'd with other tish, and this process is ooutinued until all the oversalted fish have passed throuo-h 
the water, remaining there only long enough to secure the desired result. If the (luantity of fisli 
is large the water in the tubs is changed whenever renuisite. It is customary to use salt water for 
ne;irly all purposes. The fishermen and smokers claim that fresh water has a tendency to make the 
gills of the herring tender and more liable to break and allow the fish to fall from the sticks after 
being hung in the 8mokehou.se. They also think that the salt water makes the flesh of the fish more 
firm and not so apt to become soft after being smoked. The salting sheds are, therefore, sometimes 
furnished witli steam pumps for obtaining the necessary supply of salt water. * » » 

Scaliny. — It was formerly customary to remove the scales from the herring intended for smoking 
purposes before taking them from the boat. The fisheruien, with their rubber boots, walked through 
the mass without lilting their feet, and the contact of the fish with each other and with the le"8 of 
the men riimoved the greater part of the scales. This laborious process was called "treading them 
out.'' It is said to have begun in 18l;0 and was continued until aliout 1880. Another method of 
scaling the fish diiriug that period was to stir tbeiii with a spudger. lu recent years it has not been 
considered necessary to resort to these or other methods for removing the scales, since the frei|uent 
handling which the fish uudergo renders them practically scaleless when they reach tlie smokehouse. 
The scales of the herring come otf very easily when the fish are first taken from the water, but if 
allowed to dry they become set and are removed with difiiculty. Tlie mrthods for removinn- them 
above described insured a more thorough and uniform scaling of the fish than would otherwise be 
efl'ected, but if tlie work was not carefully performed it was liable to result in bruising the fish and 
in an increased loss in " broken-bcdlied " herring. 

Stringing. — When proi)erly salted the fish are taken out of the pickle to be strung on herrinf 
sticks preparatory to being hung in the smokehouse. This is done with ordinary dip nets, or "wash 
nets,'' as they are called in this locality. As the tish are dipped out they are washed or riused in the 
brine with the nets, after which the pickle is allowed to run oft of them and they are laid on the 
stringing tal>les. The dipping and stringing proceed simultaneously. 

The " stringers," or persons who string the herring, are of both sexes, the females often i>redomi- 
nating in number. In some instancis the fishermen do the work themselves, but generally men and 
women and boys and girls are liired for tliis jinrpose. The number of stringers employed in each 
smokehouse varies from 2 to 8 and sometimes more, according to the amount of work to be done. 
They receive 20 cents per 100 sticks for stringing large herring and bloaters and 25 cents for small herring 
The cost of stringing is estimated to average one-half cent per box, but is probably a little less than 
that. At these prices each stringer can earn from $1 to $2 per day. There are from 25 to 35 herring 
on each stick, and a person can string from 500 to 1,000 sticks in a day. The work is performed very 
rapidly. The herring is taken with its back in the palm of the right hand, the stick being held by 
the blunt end in the left hand; the left gill-cover is then raised by a movement of the right thumb and 
the pointed end of the stick is inserted and passed through the month, the fish being moved down to 
its proper place. The work is often done by reversing this order, the fish being taken iu the left and 
the stick in the right hand, but in either case the herring wheu strung hang on the stick with their 
backs toward the stringer. 

llrainiug and rf/i/iHi/.— After the herring have been strung on the sticks they are washed in a 
trough of clean salt water and hung on the herring horses. They are then carried out into the 
open air, where they are allowed to remain until the water drains off of them and they have lieconie 
sufficiently dry to hang iu the smokehouse. The time reijuired for drying varies according to the 
condition of the weather, but is usually from one to several hours. The drying not only hardens the 
gill-covers and prevents the fish from falling from the sticks in the smokehouse, but also improves their 
quality when smoked. The work of stringing and drying the herring is generally done iu the fore 
part of the day and in the afternoon they are hung in the smokehouse. If the weather is not fine it 
is sometimes necessary to dry the fish in the smokehouse after leaving them iu the open air loni' 
enough for the water to dr.iin from them. When this method is resorted to, the doors and windows 
are opened to give a free circulation of air and fires are kept burning until the drying is completed. 

Fillinjl the smokehouse. — The smokehouse is not usually filled all at one time, and it often happens 
that the work occupies several weeks. The herring are taken care of as fast as they are obtained 
from the weirs, the time recpiired to fill the smokehouse depending somewhat on the abundance and 
constancy of the sujijily. If the supply is steady, the work progresses as rapidly as lierring can be 
prepared, otherwise the period may bo extended to three or four weeks and perhaps longer. 

F.C. li., 1898-31 



482 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

When tlio herring have been sufficiently dried in the sun they are carried on the herring horses 
to the smokehouse, where the sticlis are placed in the " bays," their ends resting on the scantlings or 
beams on either side of each "bay." The work of " hanging" the herring requires the services of at 
least two men, and if a larger number are engaged in it they work in pairs. One man stands in the 
"bay " with his feet on the beams, while the other stands on the ground or floor and hands the sticks 
of herring up to him, two at a time, keeping the sharji end of the stick downward so the Iierring will 
not slip off. The sticks are made loug enough to reach across the " bay '' and to nearly the center of 
the beams which support them at either end. 

The lower part of the "bays" is usually tilled first. The fires are then kindled and the herring 
smoked until they acciuire a good color. When this is etfected the tires are allowed to go down, the 
doors and ventilators are opened to let out the smoke, and the herring are shifted to a place nearer 
the top of the smokehouse. The lower part is then ready to receive another lot of fish. This prelim- 
inary smoking occupies from about 12 to 15 hours. The work is continued in this manner until the 
smokehouse is filled. Two smokehouses are very often tilled at the same time. In that case, after the 
toi) of the house has been filled by shifting the herring, the lower part is completed by putting about 
three tiers of herring in each house on alternate days. When two houses are tilled together, the work 
can be done in almost as short a time as would be required to fill one alone. 

The object of putting the herring into the honse by degrees, instead of all at one time, were that 
practicable, is to insure their becoming thoroughly dry before being subjected to the smoke, and also 
to smoke them more evenly and secure a greater uniformity of color. If a large body of fish were put 
into the smokehouse at once they would gather dampness and great difficulty would bo met with in 
preventing them from spoiling. To fill a smokehouse holding 20,000 boxes of herring in a proper 
manner requires at least two weeks and a somewhat longer period if two such houses are filled at the 
same time. The length of time also varies according to the size of the smokehouses. Small houses 
may sometimes be filled in a few days. After the smokelmuses have been filled the additional length of 
time refjuired to complete smoking the. herring is about three weeks. Regular herring are placed as 
close together on the sticks as possible without touching each other, the gill-covers generally keeping 
them far enough apart. The sticks, when hung, are placed about 3 inches from each other. 

Fires and wood. — The fires for smoking the herring are built on the ground at equal distances 
apart over the entire area of the smokehouse. The wood used is of various kinds, but white birch is 
generally preferred; driftwood which has been soaked with salt water is also used. The main consid- 
eration is to have wood that will burn slowly and jiroduce an abundance of smoke. The fires are kept 
burning very slowly, the smokehouse being visited every few hours during the night as well as the 
day. If too much heat is generated the herring are soon damaged and may be comiiletely spoiled. 

Previous to 1820, only two brands of smoked herring were Icnowii, namely, "number 
ones" and "number twos." On the introduction of scaled lish, a third brand was 
added, the "medium scaled," including all the best tish of medium size that were well 
scaled. At present there are three principal brands of hard herring, viz, "length- 
wise," "medium-scaled," and "No. 1." Auother brand known as "tucktails" is also 
prepared to some extent. The lengthwise herring are the largest of the hard herring 
prepared, and must be packed lengthwise with the box, hence the name. Of this 
grade each box contains only about 15 or 20 fish, weighing about 6 pounds, the boxes 
being of uniform size, 12 inches long, 6i inches wide, and 2^ inches deep, the thickness 
of the ends being flveeighths inch, and of the other iiarts one-fourth inch, the cost of 
the boxes approximating $1.5 jjer 1,000. The tucktails are also longer than the width 
of the box, but they are packed crosswise of the box, the tails being tucked or bent 
over them, as indicated by the name. The medium-scaled form the popular size and 
sell for the highest prices. They are packed crosswise of the box and are usually 
divided into two sizes, viz, large and small medium herring, 30 to 40 of the former and 
40 to 50 of the latter filling a box. The "No. 1" grade is composed of the. smallest 
tish, each box containing from 55 to 75 tish. 

Several of the New England States have very extensive and prec-ise regulations 
affecting the grading, packing, iusi)ecting, and branding of smoked fish, but these 



PRKSERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 483 

regulations are rarely euforced. In ^I.iiiic regulations were made from time to time 
begiuuing in 1821, afteuting the smoking of herring, but in 1871 it was provided — 

Hereafter no iuspection of smoked herring shall lie leciuired, but all smoked herring put up in 
boxes or casks for sale in this State shall be branded on the cask or box iuclosing them with the first 
letter of the Christian uauie and the whole of the surnauie of the person putting up the same, aud 
■with the uame of the State and the place where such person lives, and all such fish oft'ered for sale or 
shipping not thus branded shall l)e forfeited, oue-half to the use of the town where the oft'ense is 
eomniitted, and the other half to the person libeling the same. 

Early iu the jireseut ceutury the price realized by the lishermen varied from $1 
to $1.25 per box, 18 inches long, 9 inches wide, and 7 inches deep, inside measurement. 
From 18.'>0 to 1850 the average price was about $1.10 for "scaled herring," 80 cents for 
"number ones," aud 35 to 40 ceuts for " number twos," the size of the box being 17 
inches long, 8r^ inches wide, and inches deep, measured on the inside. From that 
date the price decreased quite rapidly for a number of years, and Ush of good (juality 
often sold as low as 7 and 8 ceuts per box. Later, with the revival' of trade, it agaiu 
improved, until in 1880 it ranged between 12 and 25 cents, according to the quality 
of the tish, good scaled herring averaging fully 22 cents, while lower grades usually 
sold at 15 or 10 cents. The boxes in 1880 were usually 15.i inches long, 7i inches wide, 
and 4 inches deep, inside measurement. Since 1880 the prices have decreased con- 
siderably. In 1894 medium-scaled herring sold for 9 ceuts, and No. 1 for about G cents. 

A. choice method of packing smoked herring, introduced in 1878, has met with 
much favor. After the herring have been salted aud smoked in the usual way, the 
skin, head, and viscera are removed and the bones extracted. The flesh is then 
packed eight to twelve in small wooden boxes with glass fronts or tied in bunches of 
about one dozen fish each, six of such bunches being packed in a neat wooden box, 
which also sometimes has a pane of glass introduced iu one of the sides to render the 
contents visible without opening the box. By skinning the herring and placing them 
together their tlesh is brought in close contact, preserving their inherent moisture 
and flavor, this effect being further increased by packing them in a box. The fish 
also present a much neater appearance when oft'ered for sale and are more attractive 
to customers. This process was protected by Letters Patent No. 207080, dated Sep- 
tember 10, 1878. 

Large quantities of foreign smoked herring are imported into the (Tnited States, 
approximating 4,000,000 pounds auuually, worth about $100,000 — mostly from Nova 
Scotia and New Brunswick, tliough large (juantities are received also from Newfound- 
land, Norway, Gieat Britain, and the Netherlands. The exports of smoked herring 
are eijual in quantity to the imjjorts, the great bulk of them being sent to Haiti, and 
smaller (|uantities to Santo Domingo, Cuba, and other tropical countries. 

Tlie following notes on the methods of smoking hard or red herring in Holland 
and in England are furnished by Mr. Adolph Nielsen: 

SMOKING HERRING IN HOLLAND. 

The greater part of the herring are caught iu the North Sea and salted round on board of the vessel 
in barrels. After they are brought to the smoking-houses the barrels are opened aud the herring put 
into hirge vessels to be steeped iu fresh water. The length of time in which the herring are steeped 
depends upon the ditt'ereut markets for which they are prepared. For the local markets, Antwerp and 
Urussels, they are steeped for two days, while for the Italian markets they are steeped one day, 
ami sometimes not steeped at all, but only washed. In order to liberate the herring as much as 
I>08sible from scales they are stirred about several times during the day with a stirring pole. The 
herring which are salted heavy or have remained iu salt over the ordinary time are first steeped one 



484 HULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION 

(lay, then t;ilvcn up and put in baskets for 12 hours, and after this again steeped another 24 hours. 
AftiT the herring are sufficiently steeped the water is drawn off and the herring sorted and put in 
liaskets, which contain about half a barrel, and are left in these in the balcony for 18 to 21 hours. The 
objectof this is that the herring, by their own weight, in the baskets, shall press out some of the water, 
.•md serve instead of drying, and thereby facilitate the smoking. Subseijuently the herrini;- are 
threaded on willow twigs, as in Englaml, and lironght into the smoking-rooms, where they in the 
meantime, until they can be hung up in the raftwork, arc placed on stands made for that purpose. 
When hung up to be smoked, the fattest, and such herring as are to be snu)ked strongest, aic. jilaced 
nearest the roof The fire is made on the lloor in a dozen sr.iall heaps (according to the size of the room) 
in each room, and chips of oak are generally used for that purpose if they possibly can be obtained; 
if not, a mi.xture of poplar, ash, <lm, and birch. Sawdust of oak is applied in order to smother the 
lire and keep it from flaming, .also to form a good body of smoke. After the tire is kindled the small 
windows close to the roof and the lower part of the door are kept open in order to give a better 
draft, and also to give the dampness from the herring a chance to escape. The fire is renewed when- 
ever the glowing chips are getting low. When the water after a couple of hours has evaporated 
from the herring, the small windows close to the roof and the lower part of the door are shut if 
sufficient draft can be had through the ventilators in the roof. The temperature is kept as near 
().')'- F. as possible and is regulated by opening and closing the small windows and the doors. 

Herring prepared for the two principal markets, Antwerp and lirussels, are generally smoked for 
12 hours, and supposed to keep good for two weeks. Tliese markets want the herring to be lightly 
smoked and of a bright bronzed color. Herring prepared for Germany, Italy, and other Belgian 
parts are smoked for 21 houi-s, au<l are supposed to keep good from one month to six weeks. They are 
dark-colori'd. After the herring are smoked the small windows and doors are opened and the herring 
loft to cool, either in the smoking-rooms or in the balcony in the raftwork erected there, for a couple 
of hours before they are packed. The herring are ])acked in liaskets, made of willow twigs, 28 inches 
long, 17 inches wide at the top, and 12 inches at the bottom, the Iieight about? inches, containing 200 each, 
for the Belgian, German, and home markets; while for the Italian markets boxes and drums made of 
soft wood are used. The boxes are 21^ inches long, 12 inches high, and 9A inches wide, and hold about 
200 herring. The drums are 20 inches high aiul 12 inches in diameter and contain from 300 to 100 her- 
riu". The herring are paeked slantways, back down, across the boxes or baskets, with the exception 
of the two uppermost layers, which are packed back up. The packing in the drums is just the same 
as the common packing in barrels. As a rule a little straw is put in the bottom of boxes and baskets. 
The bowed basket lid is sewed fast by the Iielp of long needle and twine. The herring are sorted for 
the Bebnau and German markets in full and spent, with no regard to size. For the Italian markets 
they are sorted in large full, medium full, and spent herring. Of the large full it takes about 300, of 
the medium about 100, and of the spent about 370 to till a drum of the above-mentioned dimensions. 
Bc8id<'S the herring caught in the North Sea and treated and smoked in the manner descrilied, a lot of 
smaller herring caught in the Zuyder Zee is also smoked for local consumption. These herring are 
generally brought to the smoking-houses fresh, are pickled in strong pickle for about an hour, left in 
the baskets to dry a while and smoked for 1 to 8 hours. The smoking of hen iug for export to foreign 
countries has iiot been carried on in Europe to any extent, except in (ireat Britain and Holland, until 
of late years, when a lot of this article has also been exported from Norway and Sweden. 

SMOKIN(i UERIUNG IN ENGLAND. 

Red herring are for the nujst part prepared of fresh herring, which are salted dry on the floor 
in the saUing-room connected with the smoking-house, and allowed to renuiin in the salt 2 to 6 days, 
according to the length of time they are intended to keep, and according to nuirkets tor which they 
are prepared. After being left a sufficient time iu salt they are rinsed in clean water and then 
threaded on sticks in the same way as the bloaters and hung up in the smoking-rooms, where they are 
smoked for about 1 weeks. If high dried are wanted, the time of smoking is about 6 weeks. The red 
hcrrin" are smoked with a small tire made of chips of oak and sawdust, and the fire only renewed once 
every day. The average temperature in the smoking-rooms is kept at about 62° F. Sometimes red 
hi'rring are prepared from herring which have been pickled in large cisterns. These are soaked iu fresh 
water before they are hung up to be smoked, but otherwise treated iu the same manner as the dry- 
salted red herring. The pickle-salted are called Scotch reds, and are lower iu price than the dry-salted 
herring. Herring which have fallen down or are headless are smoked on the same sticks of wood as 
the kippers, and are called " red tenters" and "plucks." 



PRESKRVATION OF FISHICRY PRODUCT!^ FOR FOOD. 485 

In pr.'puring red or )i:n<l lierring at Yarmouth, England, for the Mediterranean 
markets, the fish on arrival at the cnring-house are, if previously salted on board of the 
vessels, rinsed to remove the incrnsted salt, and then, without other preparation, 
are again put iu salt, that from Liverpool being iireferred. After remaining in salt 
for 10 to 14 days the herring are washed, strung on smoke-sticks, 25 fish to each 
stick, which is generally about 50 inches long, and placed iu the smoke-room, which 
may be 10 or 18 feet square. A dozen or more fires are made on the fioor, the fuel 
generally being small sticks of oak or ash. Tlie fires are kept burning for two days, 
when they are permitted to go out and the fish allowed to drip for a day. Then the 
fires are again lighted for 2 or 3 days, and this process of alternate smoking and 
draining continued for L! weeks or even longer, when, after cooling, the fish are ready 
for packing. For the home nuirket Yarmouth hard hei-ring are packed iu fiat boxes or 
in kegs 10 inches high, holding from 80 to 100 fish, and for the Mediterranean markets 
in barrels and half-barrels. In the latter case, when the barrel is filled to the top, by 
means of a screw i)ress the fish are pressed down and an additional number placed in, 
GOO or 700 full-sized fish being the usual unmber to each barrel. 

BLOATER HERRING. 

Scotland has always led in the preparation of bloater herring, as in most of the 
smoked fishery products. It is not known when this article originated, but doubtless 
as cAvlf as the sixteenth century. For two centuries or more it has been an important 
product in Europe, but it has been pre])ared in the United States during the last 40 
years only. The lousiness is said to have begun at Boston in 1859, as an outgrowth 
of the importation of large salted herring from Bay of Islands, Newfoundland. The 
l)rocess was similar to that employed in Scotland, and the trade increased until iu 
1808 10,000 barrels of large herring were smoked and sold as "Yarmouth bloaters." 
During that year the business was started at Eastport, Me., and on account of the 
convenience of carrying it on in connection with the extensive smoking of hard 
lierring in the vicinity the trade has largely centered at that port. The i)reparation 
of bloaters was begun at Gloucester in 1883, the fish being received salted from 
Newfoundland, and at present the business at that port is quite large and is carried 
on principally in connection with the smoking of halibut. Several ports in Maine 
also prepare quantities of this product, among which are Portland and Lubec. Some 
are also prepared in New York City. 

The Washington treaty in effect from July 1, 1873, to June 30, 1885, had a very 
disastrous effect ou the bloater-herring industry, large quantities being prepared at 
(Jraiul Mauan, Canipobello, and other islands in the British North American Provinces, 
and shipped to Boston and New York. Since the abrogation of that treaty, however, 
the duty of h <'ent per pound has restricted the preparation of the supply for United 
States markets almost exclusively to this country. The present annual product 
approximates 5,500,000 pounds, valued at $170,000 wholesale. 

Two geueral grades of bloater herring are prepared iu this country, those from 
the large Newfoundland salted herring and those from herring caught along the coast 
of Maine. The business at Gloucester and Boston depends almost exclusively ou the 
salted herring from Newfoundlaiul, while Eastport, Lubec, and Portland use mainly the 
herring caught on the Maine coast, most of which are received in a fresh state. The 
Newfoundland herring are obtained from Bay of Islands, Boon Bay, Fortune Bay, 
Placentia Bay, St. Morris Bay, etc., being purchased of the fishermen at about 00 cents 
to $1 per barrel, and from 1 2,000 to 20,000 barrels being imported each year. The 



486 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

vessels eugaj^ecl iu that trade arrive in Newlbundlaud during October \yitli from 1,200 
to 1,800 bushels of salt eacli and are moored iu some couvenieut cove. As the fresh 
herring are lauded ou deck, a barrel at a time, about li bushels of Trapaui salt is spread 
amoug them, tiie mass drudged back and forth several times and then shoveled 
into the hold iu bulk until a cargo is secured amounting to 1,000 or 1,500 barrels. There 
they remain until the vessel reaches port, the pickle being pumped out when necessary. 
The lish are then removed and stored iu bulk ou the floor of tlie warehouse, where 
they may remain until the following April if not required in the meantime. 

There are two general processes of treating these salted herring preparatory to 
smoking, the dilferenee being in the manner of soaking. At Boston the salted fish 
are soaked in large square tanks sufficiently to I'emove the extreme saltiness and 
all dust, slime, etc., the lengtli of tlie soaking depending on the degree of saltiness 
and varying from 15 to 24 hours. On removal with a dip net they are thrown on 
a stringing table, wliere a gang of men stand ready to place tliem on small square 
sticks about .'5i feet in length. In stringing tliem the stick is held in the left hand, 
the lower end resting under the left elbow; each fish is grasped with the riglit hand 
about the head, and by pressing it vertically the gills are opened, when the flsh is 
entered on the stick at tiie left gill opening and out at tlie mouth. Usually about 
15 herring are ]tlaced on each stick. Each stick with its load of herring is then 
dipped in water for a inonu'ut and allowed to drain, and placed in the smokehouse. 
At (iloucester the salted heriing are soaked for only a few moments before stringing, 
and round sticks, i inch iu diameter and 2 feet long, are used. The sticks with the 
attached herring are then immersed in tubs or vats which are filled with fresh water, 
and the fish are soaked from 8 to Ki hours to freshen them. On removal they are 
allowed to drain for a few juomeuts, and are then placed iu the smokehouse. 

When fresh herring from neighboring points are used, as at Portland and Eastport, 
they are immediately pickled on their receipt at the smoking establishments, about a 
bushel of salt being used to each barrel of fish. After remaining in the i)ickle for 2 
or .'5 days they are removed, drained, and placed on the ordinary herring sticks, and 
hung in the smokehouse and smoked like the Newfoundland salted herring. 

In order to "bloat," the herring must be thoroughly moist, and after they have 
commenced to dry in the smokehouse the heat must be increased. If they are i)er- 
mitted to hang 10 or 12 hours without heating they will not bloat, but will become 
hard herring. The smoking is continued from 2i to 6 days, when the flsh are usually 
sufficiently cured. They are i-enioved from the houses, allowed to cool for a few hours, 
and placed in boxes holding 50 or loo flsh each, the larger size being by far the most 
numerous. The average weight of 100 bloaters prepared from jSTewfouudlaud herring 
is about 4:0 pounds, whereas an equal quantity prepared from Gulf of Maine flsh weighs 
from 25 to 35 pounds, according to their size and the extent of the smoking. The 
Eastport bloaters weigh about 25 i)ounds per 100 fish, being smoked 2 or 3 days longer 
than the Boston bloaters, as they are intended to keep a greater length of time and in 
warmer climates. They are placed in boxes IS^ inches long, IH inches wide, and 7i 
inches deep, inside measurement. The thickness of the ends is generally J inch and 
of other parts | inch, and the cost of boxes approximates $12 per 100. The boxes at 
Boston, Gloucester, and Portland are usually considerably larger. One barrel of round 
fresh herring yields about 5 boxes of 100 bloaters each. Those smoked 2i or 3 days 
will keep usually 3 or 4 months under favorable conditions, while those smoked 5 or 
days will keep until warm weather. Very few bloaters are sold after the month of May. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 487 

The market for bloaters is principally in Boston, New York, Canada, and the 
West, and the average wholesale jirice for those prepared from Newfoundland salted 
herring is aljont .$1.20 per 100 lish. The Bostou-cured bloaters sold in 1850 at $1.25 
to $1.50, and in 18(i5 at $1.80, per 100. In 1880 the value of the Eastport bloaters was 
about 05 cents, in 1S0.> it was 77 cents, and in 1898 it was about SO cents per 100. 

The cost of preparing bloaters at Eastport is considerably leas than at Gloucester 
or Boston. At Boston it approximates 84 cents per box of 100, as follows: 

Salted lisU (at $2.30 per barrel of 550) $0.45 

Cost ol'smokin;;' aud packing 25 

Bos 14 

Total 84 

During the past two or three years some curers have packed bay leaves between 
the layers of bloaters in the boxes, but fisb so packed have a tendency to mold when 
placed in cold storage. Choicest bloater.s are very little salted, and are smoked so 
slightly tnat there is little dis(;oloration of the skin, but prei)ared in that way they 
will keep only tiiree or four days. These mild cured bloaters are very popular in 
Cireat Britain, but are not prepared in this country to any great extent. 

The "pickling" or "biickling"' prepared in New York City are quite similar to the 
bloaters ])repared at Boston. The large fat frozen herring from Newfoundland are 
used, their average weight being nearly a pound each. These are placed in cold stor- 
age, whence they are removed from time to time, as the trade requires. On removal 
they are thawed out and pickled round for 10 or 12 hours and ])laced on rods in the 
smokehouse, and alter smoking cold for 8 or 10 hours they are placed in the smoke 
oven and hot-smolied or cooked tor an hour or two. About 10,000 pounds of these 
aie prepai'cd in New York City annually, selling at about 12 cents per pound. These 
fish are sometimes beheaded and eviscerated before being smoked, and are then sealed 
in tin cans, small fish being selected for this purpose. 

Labrador and Newfoundland split herring, salted in barrels, are also smoked in 
New York City and a few other points, but the business is not so extensive as formerly, 
probably not exceeding 12,000 pounds annually. These are soaked out, strung up, and 
cohl-smoked for s or 10 hours, just enough to give a slight color to them. In New York 
they are generally tied 3 in a bunch and sold to the stores at or 7 cents per bunch. 

The preparation of bloaters is much more extensive in Creat Britain than in the 
United States, Yarmouth being the principal place where they are cured. Usually 
they are prepared for immediate consumption and are smoked for 10 or 12 hours only. 
When using fresh herring, the fish are placed in strong brine for G or 8 hours, then 
washed in clean water to i-emove scales, slime, etc., ])laced on smoke-sticks by pressing 
the latter through the gills, dipped or rinsed in water, and suspended in smokehouses, 
where they are smoked for 10 or 12 hours at a temperature of about 80°. When using 
salted herring, they are soaked for a time to remove the excess of salt, the length of 
the soaking depending on the degree of saltiness of the fish. 

The delegates appointed in 1389 by the Canadian government to inquire into the 
herring industry of Great Britain and Holland, state as follows regarding the Yar- 
mouth bloater industry, on pages 30-31 of their report: 

One of the best bloater curers in Yarmouth informed us that one reason why his fish stood so 
high in the market was that he was always very careful, in the first place, to select the very best 
fish for the manufacture of bloaters, reserving for other purposes all inferior and unsuitable fish. 
Then he is very careful in salting, curing, and smoking them. We saw in the lish stores in Yarmouth, 



488 BULLETIN OF TIIK UNITKD STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

also on BiUiiin'SiCiito market in Ldiulou :iu(l cm tin' tables in tlio hotels, a. bloater very slij;htly salteil, 
and smoked so slightly that there was iin iliscoloratioii at all of the herring. This bloater so 
prepared is a most delicious lish. It is prepared iu this way for immediate use in the nearest eities, 
towns, and country places, and will only keep some three or lonr days. Other classes of bloaters, 
intended for eonsumptiou at greater distances and therefore designed to keep longer, arc more highly 
salleil, snmked in various grades. The bloaters wo saw were fairly fat, hut very fat herring -will not 
do for bloaters. Bloaters are salted in heaps on the stone lloors of the warehouses — some for a few 
hours, some for one or two days or more. They are never so highly smoked as the mildest red herring. 
There is no difiicnlty iu manufacturing bloaters. All that is required is intelligence, good .jndgmeut, 
(juick observation, and lionesty of purpose, together with a knowledge of the tastes of the consumers ; 
and also whether the lish is required for immediate use near by or for exportation to jdaces at a 
distance. The gentleman who gave us so much information said that first of all he rec|uired to know 
exactly the kind of bloater re<iuire(l and that he then did his best to sujiply the article. When 
the herring have been <iuite Buliliciently salted, they are washed clean on the outside, but are not 
opened, gibbed, or gutted. They are then strung on rods and hung up to drip and dry, .and then 
smoked. The fuel preferred in Britain for smoking purposes is the sawdust or the waste from the 
turning lathe of birch, although oak and elm are sometimes used. All agreed that the birch made 
the sweetest smoke. The white bloaters put up for immediate use are packed in neat light boxes, 
containing 50 herrings each. Those more highly salted and smoked are pnt up in larger packages. 
The bloaters we saw were considerably smaller than our own herring; tliey are deep from back to 
belly, and are an excellent tish. Too much attention can not be given to the selection of the herring 
used for bloaters and to the respective curing processes. The excellence of any particular curer's 
bloaters does not arise from any special mode of curing, but from special care .and attention and th.at 
practical knowledge which close observation and experience alone can confer. At the hotel bloaters 
were opened au<l split from the belly to the backbone, the gills and viscer.a taken out, •■iiid the herring, 
without being washed, cooked with the milt and the roe. The roe furnishes pleasant eating. 

In the case of bloaters for immediate use, the herring may be put, immediately after being landed 
and selected, into a strong pickle from six to eight hours. They are then put on the spits and washed by 
dipping in large tubs of salt water or very weak brine, and then hung up in the smokehouse. The 
fires should have been burning previou,sly, therefore emitting only a light smoke. A few hours — six 
to ten— in the smoke room will sultice. They should be cooled off before being packed for the market. 

The bloater business in Biitaiu is simply enormous and uses up an immense amount of herrings, 
thus greatly benefiting the fishermen and the curers, who realize .at once on this branch of the herring 
industry, while the public are supplied with herring in an agreeable and jiopular form. 

KIPPEKED HERRING. 

Comparatively few kippered lieiriiig are prepared in the TTiiited States, the 
round bloaters being so much more popular. The kippered Iierriug are split along the 
back from tiie head to the tail, like mackerel, eviscerated, washed, and salted iu a 
manner similar to that ai)iilied to bloaters, excei)t that they are not kept in the pickle 
so long. They are nest hung up to dry for a few hours, then smoked for C or 8 hours 
at a temperature of 80° or 85°, each fish being suspended by the napes to keep its 
abdomen open. With the exception of splitting, the cure is similar to that of bloaters. 
They sell for about $'2 per 100, but the trade is of very limited extent. 

The Canadian delegates previously referred to reported as follows regarding the 
kippered-herring industry of Great Britain : 

There is a very large business done in kippered herring in Britain. Herring put up in this way 
are in great demand everywhere and are preferred by many to the bloater. The Aery best herring are 
required for the kippering process. The herring of the west coast of Scotland are in great request 
for this ]iurpose. The fish used for kippers should be had as soon as possible after they are taken out 
of the water. They are then carefully selected as to size and quality. Where we saw them at work 
an active girl stood at a bench laying the herring on its side with the back toward her; with two cuts 
of a sharp knife she split it from mouth to tail, and with a third motion of the knife she scraped out 
the stomach and gut and any loose blood inside the fish. She did her work with great rapidity. The 
herring were then placed carefully into vats of pickle, where, being for immediate use, they renuiined 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 489 

for 35 minutes, and were then carefully taken out and placed in liasketa to drip. They were then 
spitted on fine rods eontiiining from 12 to 20 licrrings each, and hung up in the smokehouse and 
smoked for a few hours — five or six — then loolcd off .and packed up in small hoxes .and disp.atched to 
London by train before niidnijiht of tlie day on which the lish were caught. When tlie fish are 
intended to be kept longer more salt .and more smoke .are applied. Where circumst.ances aie favoriible 
kippering may be carried on to advantage either on a larger or smaller scale. Herring put up in this 
way are most delicious. They cost a tride more, because of the extra labor and the greater care requi- 
site in handling them. The same materials are used for smoking kippers as are used for smoking 
blo.aters and the same conditions apply, only that kippers, presenting a Larger surface to the smoke 
as tiiey do, do not re<iuire to be so long exposed to the smoke. As in the case of bloaters and red 
herring, the tastes of the consumers must be ascertained and the curing as to s.alt and smoke regulated 
accordingly. The manufacture of kippers is greatly on the increase in Britain. It is an important 
branch of the herring industry .and utilizes a large proportion of the Briti.sh latch of herrings. 

SMOKED ALE\WIVES OR RIVER HERRING. 

River herring (»r alewives are saioked iu a mimber of localitie.s, but principally in 
Maryland and Virginia, and to a les.s extent along the Delaware and Hudson rivers 
and in the waters of North and South Carolina. In New England .smoked alewives are 
prepared at Taunton and at Boston, as well as on the Connecticut Eiver; but most of 
the supply of these fish in the New England States is from New Brunswick. The 
trade is mainly during the spring and early summer months, more particularly in 
April, May, and June, when there are few other smoked fish on the market. The 
business is not concentrated, but is participated in by many small smokers located at 
numerous points on the Atlantic seaboard. For this reason it is difficult to estimate 
the quantity smoked annually with any great degree of accuracy, but it is probably 
not far from .5,(»00,(»0(», their wholesale value being about •'*90,()0(). 

In preparing these fish iu the Chesapeake region they are washed in vats and 
scaled with a knife as soon as practicable after removal from the water. They are 
next immersed over night in strong brine, containing V2 to 1-4 pounds of Liverpool 
salt to each IIIO pounds of fish, with some dry salt on top to strengthen the weak 
pickle that rises to the surface. The following morning the round fish are strung on 
smoke sticks, the stick being usually entered at the left gill opening of each fish and 
out at the mouth, as in case of hard herring or bloaters on the New England coast. 
The strings of ttsli attached to the stick are then dipped in fresh water to rinse them 
off", and after draining and drying for a few hours are suspended in the smokehouse 
about (> or 8 feet above the fire, and exposed to a den.se but cool smoke made of pine 
shavings or similar material for about li or 3 days. Care must be taken to prevent the 
fire from becoming too hot, thus causing the fish to crack at the lower end or possibly 
to fall frotn the sticks to the floor. rrei>ared in this manner the river herring will 
usually keej) in good condition in the Chesapeake region for 30 days during the spring 
and for a somewhat less period in the sunnner. As the fish are not eviscerated before 
smoking the decrease in weight is small, 100 pounds of round fish yielding about 85 
pounds smoked. The wholesale price is about 20 or 22 cents per dozen, according to 
the size and condition. 

In Washington, Baltimore, and one or two other places the river herring are pre- 
pared in the following manner: 

The fresh herring are scaled with a knife, gibbed like the pickled herring of Scotland, washed, 
and pickled for 3 hours in brine, about 20 pounds of Liverpool salt being used for each 100 
pounds offish. <*n rcmci' :il from tbi' pickle tliey arc strung on small iron rods, the rod passing 



490 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

through the eye sockets of the fish, draiued for an hour or so, and hung in the hogshead smokehouses, 
in the bottom of whicli a fire has been made of equal quantities of oak and hicliory wood. The fish 
are dried for a few minutes and thin the tops of the liogsheads are covered with old salt sacks or other 
suitable material. From time to time the fire is sprinkled with water to produce a vapor and the fish 
thus exposed to heat, smoke, and steam for about 3 hours, when they are removed and cooled and are then 
in condition to be eateu. Ouly oak andhickory should be used as fuel, as other materials do not produce 
the proper flavor. If the fire becomes too warm it should be smothered witli oak or hickory sawdust. 

Herring thus prepared sell for about 40 cents per dozen wholesale, and the trade 
is at times quite extensive. During the season l,00(t dozen are usually sliipi)ed each 
week from Washington to New York City. 

The process of smoking alewives commonly employed in the New England States 
differs from the Chesapeake process in a few minor particulars. The smokers are 
usually not so careful about removing the scales with a knife, depending generally on 
the frequent handling of the fish to scale them if cured soon after removal from the 
water. It is also customary in salting the fish to permit them to make their own 
pickle, the fish remaining in tlie pickle for 3 to 5 days. On removal they are soaked in 
fresh water for 5 to l> hours and strung on hard- wood sticks, the stick entering through 
the left gill-opening and out at the mouth. They are next rinsed, drained, and dried 
for a short while and suspended in the smokehouse, where they are expo.sed to a smol- 
dering fire of liard wood and sawdust for '.i or i days, when, after cooling, they are 
ready for sale. 

The wholesale price in New England is usually from $1.50 to $2 per 100. 

In Massachusetts so few smoked alewives are prepared that little attention is i)aid 
to the following law respecting the methods of inspecting and i)acking: 

Sec. 48. Alewives or herrings intended to be packed for sale or exportation shall be sufliciently 
salted and smoked to cure aud preserve the same, and afterwards shall be closely packed in boxes in 
clear aud dry weather. 

Sec. 4SI. Smoked alewives or herrings shall be divided aud sorted by the inspector or his deputy, 
and denominated, acciirding to their quality, " number one" aud ''number two." Number one shall 
consist of all the largest and best-cured fish; number two, of the smaller but well-cured lisli; and iu 
all cases those which are belly-broken, tainted, scorched or buiiit, sl.ack-salted, or not sufificiently 
smoked shall be taken out as lefuse. 

Sec. 50. Boxes uuide for the purpose of packing smoked alewives or herrings, and containing the 
same, shall be made of good sound boards sawed ami well seasoned, the sides, top, aud bottom of not 
less than 5-inch boards, securely nailed, and shall be 17 inches in length, 11 inches in breadth, and 
6 inches in depth, in the clear, inside. 

Sec. 51. Each box of alewives or herrings inspected shall be branded on the top by the inspecting 
officer with the first letter of his Christian name, the whole of his surname, the name of the town 
where it was inspected, with the addition of "Mass.," aud also the qu,-ility of "number one" or 
"number two." Herrings taken on the coast of Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, Labrador, or Magdalen 
Islands, and brought into this State, shall also be branded with the nainc^ of the ])lae(^ or coast 
where taken. 

Sec. 52. The fees for inspecting, packing, and branding shall be 5 cents for each box, which shall 
he paid by the purchaser, and the inspector-general may require from his deputies 1 cent for each box 
inspected, packed, and branded by them. 

# * * * ^ -Jr * 

Sec. 54. No smoked alewives or herring shall be exported from this State unless inspected .and 
branded .as aforesaid, under a penalty of $2 for each box c.vported, nor shall alewives or herrings be 
taken from a box, inspected aud braiuled as aforesaid, aud replaced by others of an inferior quality, 
with intent to defraud any person in the sale of the same, under a penalty of $5 for each box so 
changed: Proi'ided, That all smoked herrings aud alewives arriving from any other State in the United 
States, and having been there ius]iected, nuiy be exported iu a, vessel from this State without being 
reiuspected. (General Statutes of Massachusetts, ISSSt, ch. 49.) 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 491 

New Hampshire has laws somewhat on the same lines as the preceding, but very 
few alewives are smoked in that State. 

SMOKED LAKE HERRING AND WHITEFISH. 

Formerly along the shores of the (Ireat Lakes and in the flsh markets using 
sui)plies therefrom, many whiteflsh were smoked, but the increasing scai-city of that 
species gradually led to the substitution of lake herring, and during recent years 
very few whiteflsh have been prepared in this manner. The trade in smoking lake 
herring is quite extensive, amounting to probably 2,000,000 pounds annually, prepared 
Ijrincijially at Chicago, Milwaukee, Detroit, Sandusky, Cleveland, liuffalo, Cincinnati, 
Erie, New York, Baltimore, and Washington. 

The process of smoking lake herring and whiteflsh is identical. If the flsh are 
frozen when received at the smokehouse, they are thawed in the open air or, better, 
by immersing and stirring them in a barrel of water of medium temperature. After 
thawing they are s|)lit down the belly to the vent, eviscerated, washed thoroughly, 
and i)ickled in butts or barrels, about 4 pounds of fine salt to 100 pounds of fish being 
scattered among them and sufficient briiu^ of !tO ' salinity to cover them. Either dry 
salt or brine alone may be used, the former being preferred in warm weather and the 
latter during the winter. In case brine alone is used, some dry salt should be placed 
on toil fo strengthen the weak pickle floating at the surface. After renuiining in the 
pickle from 10 to 10 iiours, according to tlie strength of the pickle and the flavor 
desired, the flsh are removed and strung on the smoke rods, 10 to 20 fish to each rod, 
according to its length and the size of the fish. 

In stringing, some curers ])ass the rod through the body immediately below the 
nape bone, efiectively preventing the flsh from falling down in smoking, but also 
marring its appearance somewhat. A more usual way is to pass the stick in at the 
right gill-opening and out at the mouth. Others pass the rod through the head near 
or through the eyes, and a few pass it immediately back of the throat cartilage. The 
latter leaves a neat appearance, yet it i)ermits more flsh to fall in the smoking process 
than when the rod is passed through the head or the shoulders. In some houses the 
smoke-stick is not passed through the fish, but instead a stiff iron wire, curved in S 
shape, is used to attach the fish to the stick, one end of the wire itassing through the 
flsh at the head or beneath the nape bone and the other hung over the smoke stick. 
At Grand Haven, and to some extent in Chicago, Milwaukee, and one or two other 
places, the flsh are secured by having stout smoke-sticks, about 1^ inches thick and 
2J inches wide; in the top of each, and about three-fourths of an inch from the edge, 
is driven a row of tacks or small wire nails at intervals of about 3 inches, projecting 
about one half inch above the surface. Ordinary cotton wrapping cord is tied to the 
wire nail at the end of each stick, and by means of this cord passing around each nail 
a single herring is held in place between each two nails throughout the length of the 
stick, the flsh being placed with the back of the neck against the stick and the cord 
passing from one nail around the throat of the fish, entering under the gills on each 
side, and then around the next nail, and so on to the end. By having the stick of 
sufficient width, a row of small nails may be placed on each edge, so as to attach a 
row of flsh at each side. This removes nearly all risk of the flsh falling, and their 
appearance is not marred by holes through which the smoke-stick has been passed. 



492 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

Some markets prefer the herring well smoked on the inside, and to accomplish 
this the sides of the abdoiniual cavity are stretched open by means of small wooden 
sticks or toothpicks, either one or two sticks to each fish. This jDcrmits the smoke to 
permeate the stomach cavity better and results in a more durable article. In general, 
the Western trade prefers the stomach cavity stretched open, while the Eastern markets 
prefer them without the sticks; but there are exceptions. The smoked lake herring 
sold in Washington are mostly extended by means of a small stick, or, in case of large 
iish, by two small sticks. 

The fish attached to the sticks are dipped in fresh water to remove surplus or 
undissolved salt, loose scales, etc., unless they have been rinsed before stringing, 
drained, and suspended in the smokehouse 4 to 8 feet above the tloor, and subjected 
to a gentle smoke for 4 or 5 hours. The door or damper is then closed, the fires s])read 
or built up and the fish cooked for 1 or 2 hours according to the amount of fire, the 
height of the fish, and the particular cure desired. After cooling, which is accom- 
plished either by opening the doors of the smokehouse or by removing the fish to the 
outside, they are ready for the trade. 100 pounds of round fish, or 85 pounds dressed, 
yield about 05 pounds smoked. Ordinarily these fish keep one or two weeks, and even 
longer, and the wholesale price ranges from 6 to 12 cents per pound, according to the 
locality and the season, the former being the price for the Great Lakes and the latter 
for New York City. In New York about 100,000 pounds of these fish are smoked 
annually and they sell throughout the year,beiug known usually as ciscoette, competing 
with pickling or biickling. In Washington the smoked lake herring are usually sold 
by the number, averaging about 50 cents per dozen wholesale. 

In some of the north European countries the sea herring are smoked in a manner 
similar to the lake herring in this country. The following description of a smolie- 
house in Holbek, Denmark, and the methods used therein, is from Fiskeritidende, No. 
41, Copenhagen, October 7, 1884: 

As soon lis tlie lierring are brought iu from the boat, they are placed in stroug brino for 3 or 4 
hours, or they are left over niglit in a weaker brine. Some people also use the dry-salting niethoil, 
Tlie fish are then washed and strung on round, wooden sticks, three-fourths of an inch thick and 
3 feet long. This stick is stuck through the gills and comes out at the mouth. According to the 
size, from 18 to 21 fish are strung on every stick, always in such a numner as not to toucli e.ach 
other. Tliey are then hung in tlie open air and dried iu the sunshine, if possible, and then put in the 
oven for smoking. Tlie smokehouse has four ovens, built from time to time as the demands of the 
trade recjuired. From 10,000 to 24,000 herring can be smoked per day. In one of three large ovens 
1,600 herring can be smoked at the s.aiiie time. The chimney itself should not be less than one yard 
square on the inside, as otherwise it is not capable of receiving the steam from the tish when they are 
dried in the oven. The top should be covered with a thin pLate of cast iron, so that the rain can not 
fall on the fish. For supporting the front part of the oven it is best and cheapest to nse an old iron 
rail; any other bar will scarcely be strong enough. The oven can easily be only half the size of one 
of the larger ones, but the larger it is the more profitable it will be as regards the quantity of fuel 
consumed. In front of the oven iron pl.ates are hung on .an iron pipe, and these plates are taken oil' 
when shavings are put on the fire. From these plates and up to the iron bar the opening is covered by 
a piece of linen cloth, as it is necessary to look into the oven frequently iu order to see that the flames 
do not rise too high and bum the tails of the fish. If this should be the case, tlie flames must at once 
be quenched by moist sawdust. The fuel used is exclusively oak and beech slmvings, particularly 
from coopers who make large barrels, as the shavings must not be too fine; beech and oak sawdust 
are also used, but shavings and s.awdnst of pine wood should never be employed, as it is apt to give 
to the fish a, resinous flavor. The smoking process may take from 3 to G hours, according to the 
drying which the fish have undergone iu the air. After the lisli have been smoked they are generally 
allowed to hang one night to coed otV, and arc in the morning packed in boxes holding 80 fish each. 



PEESEKVATION OV FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 493 

SMOKED SALMON. 

Smoked salmon is among the choicest of fishery products, and its cure represents 
the highest development in flsh-smoking as practiced in this country. The annual 
product approximates 2,800,000 pounds, which is sold at fioin 16 to 45 cents ])er pound 
wholesale. It is prepared princi|)ally in New York, Boston, Chicago, and Philadelphia, 
there being 8 or 10 smokiug-houses in New York City and vicinity, 4 in Boston, 2 or 3 
in rhiladelphia, 2 in Chicago, and several on the Pacific coast and other points. 

The great bulk of the supplies for the sniokiiig-houses consists of salmon pickled 
ill barrels, which come principally from Labrador, Newfoundland, and Hudson Bay, 
and more recently from Alaska and other Pacific coast points. The trade in pickled 
salmon from the east coast of the British Provinces, known to the trade as Halifax 
salmon, began early in the present century, developed principally between 1830 and 
1840, and since has ranged between 3,000 and 10,000 barrels annually, the receipts 
during the last 30 years averaging 5,500 ban els, valued at about $15 per barrel. 
The Pacific coast salmon have been used for smoking in the Eastern 8tates only since 
1885, and the extent of their use was of little conseijueuce prior to 1800. The favorite 
pickled salmon for smoking are those from Hudson Bay, with Labrador and New- 
foundland ranking next in order. They range in weight from 5 to 13 pounds salted, 
exce[)t that some few from the Hudson Bay weigh even 20 pounds, and the wholesale 
price in Boston or New York during tlie past few years has been from $17 to $20 per 
barrel of 200 pounds. Practically all of the pickled salmon from the east coast of 
the Britisli Provinces are smoked, the quantity going to the consumers in brine being 
less tliaii 2 per cent. While not so red as tlie Pacific coast salmon, they are richer 
and finer-grained. The Pacific salmon cost on the Pacific coast usually about $9 or 
$10 per barrel of 200 jiounds, while the cost of transportation to the Atlantic coast 
by rail is $3.30 and by vessel $1.20 per barrel. 

The choicest salmon for smoking are those received fresh or frozen from Nova 
Scotia .and New Brunswick, especially from the Restigouche River and vicinity. They 
are quite large, averaging 12 or 14 ])ounds each, some attaining a weight of 40 pounds 
or more. Some curers use fresh salmon only when the New Y'ork market is so glutted 
as to run the price down below 10 cents per pound dressed, the fish being then pur- 
chased, brine salted, and kept for the smoking season. But the best class of smokers 
receive regular shipments from the liestigouche and vicinity and place them in cold 
storage, whence they are removed for smoking as the trade demands. Many years 
ago, when salmon were abundant in the Penobscot, Kennebec, and Connecticut rivers, 
they were smoked in Maine and Connecticut, but practically all New England salmon 
are now consumed fresh. Since the salted fish constitutes the bulk of the receipts at 
the sniokinghouses, the methods of their treatment are first described. 

As the daily needs of the trade re(iuire, the salmon are removed from the barrels, 
immersed in vats of fresh water for 2 or 3 hours, then washed with a bristle brush to 
remove incrusted salt, slime, etc., and immersed in another vat of water for 10 to 00 
hours, according to the temperature of the water and the degree of saltiness of the fish. 
If desirable, the length of the soaking can be shortened by using warm water. In 
some houses they are soaked for 12 hours in running water. The fish are theu water- 
horsed in piles, skin up except the lower layer, the piles being 2 or 3 feet high, with 
boards on top on which stones are placed for compressing the fish, but water-horsing 
is not practiced by all curers, xVfter this pressure has been applied 4 or 5 hours the 



494 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

flesh of the fish is smoothed with the side of a flat knife, all ragged parts being pressed 
down. Each fish is then trussed with two or three thin, flat wooden sticks, so as to 
keep it spread out, the rough-pointed sticks being fastened transversely across the 
back on the skin side, the end of each stick slightly entering but not passing through 
the skin. If the lieads have been left on, as in case of northern or Halifax salmon, a 
small stick or pin of hickory or other hard wood is shoved through the head at the eyes. 
A roiJe-yarn cord is nest passed around this pin and about the gills, or about the upper- 
most of tlie flat stretching-sticks, in such a manner that when suspended thereby the 
weight is distributed jiroportionately and by means of which the fish may be hung 
from the sticks in the smokehouse. The Pacific coast salmon, which have the heads 
removed, arc usually tied up by a cord passing through the napes or around the tail, 
and if very large they are sometimes cut into strips before being smoked. Some 
carers hang the fish up by means of five or six iron or wire hooks passing through the 
flesh, thus doing away with the sticks and cords above described. 

The fish are permitted to drain for several hours, when they are hung in the upper 
part of the smokehouse, away from the heat, but not so high as to be in the warm air 
which accumulates at the top of the bay. I^sually only two rows or tiers are smoked 
at a time, and in tlie lofty smokehouses the smoking is continued for 18 to 30 hours. 
About 2i hours are usually required, but on dry windy days 1(J to 18 hours are 
suflflcient, and during sultry weather 30 or more are necessary. Wlien low smokehouses 
are used, in which the fish are hung within 8 or 10 feet of the fire, as at AVashington, 
D. C, the smoking is usually completed in about 12 hours. The smoke should be even 
throughout and with little fire. In some houses a light fire is built under the fisli as 
soon as placed in the smokehouse, and this is continued for C or 7 hours, wlien a 
shovelful of sawdust is added and the smoking continued 12 or 11: hours. 

When sufficiently smoked, the fish are permitted to cool and are then packed, 
usually with paper or nuitting wrapped about them, the si>reading-sticks at the back 
being left in. A barrel of pickled salmon yields about 180 pounds of smoked fish if the 
smoking be done in October, but if postponed until the following June it will yield 
only about 165 pounds. The average wholesale price in New York or Boston for 
smoked Halifax salmon is about 18 to L'O i-ents per pound, and for Pacific coast fish 
about 12 to 14 cents per pound. They will keep in good condition for 10 days or 
longer under favorable conditions, but are used mostly in the vicinity where cured. 
Smoked salmon have been shipped to New York from Nova Scotia, but although they 
looked well on being opened they had a tendency to mold soon after being unpacked. 

The ibllowing general metiiod of smoking salted salmon in Sweden and Germany 
differs from the foregoing in several particulars: 

The fish are immersed for 48 hours iu soft cold water, which duriug tliat time is changed at least 
three times. Then with a medium stiff brush and warm water each fish is well cleaned outside and 
inside, and by means of a cord about the tail is liung in a tub of clear cold water, where it remains 
for 12 hours, when it is suspended in the air for 6 hours to dry. After that it is laid on a clean table, 
and when well drained it is trussed or braced with three sticks along the back, as iu case of Halifax 
salmon, and suspended for 2 hours in the smokehouse over a gentle heat, then sulijected to a dense 
smoke for 24 to 36 hours, until it accjuires a dark-red color. The cure is then complete, and after 
cooling the fish is ready for the market. 

In preparing frozen salmon for smoking, the fish on removal from cold storage are 
thawed out either by immersing them in water over night or laying them on boards 
iu a moderate temperature and turning them over every 2 or 3 hours for 8 or 10 hours, 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 495 

when they are usually sufiicieutly thawed for handling. The fish are then split down 
the belly from head to tail, so as to lie out flat, the viscera removed, and in some cases 
the head and four-flfths of the backbone. This is customaiy with the Pacific coast 
salmon, but iu New York and Boston, where Nova Scotia salmon are used principally, 
the head and backbone generally remain. In some instances the fish are split down 
the back, depending on the state of their ijreservation. 

If the fish must be handled with little expense, so as to sell at a low price, they 
are next placed in tight barrels or butts with about 50 pounds of No. 2 salt and from 
5 to 10 pouiuls of granulated sugar to 200 pounds of fish. On the second day add 
brine made by dissolving 30 pounds of salt in 5 gallons of water. After the fifth or 
sixth day the fish are removed and soaked in fresh water for about 3 hours, and are 
then attaclied by five or six hooks to the smoke-sticks, dried, and smoked in the 
manner described for salted salmon. Tiie product by this method sells for 20 to 30 
cents per pound wholesale, but sometimes much lower. In Chicago in 1898 the writer 
saw salmon which had been held in cold storage for three years and then smoked after 
the above method and sold at 16 cents per pound, resulting, of course, in uo i)rofit 
because of the heavy cold-storage charges. 

Us.ially nuKih more care is exercised in preparing smoked salmon from fresh or 
frozen fish, and especially when using Nova Scotia fish. Immediately after thawing, 
or after removal from the ice, if fresh, the fish should be sponged dry and a mixture 
of equal parts of saltpeter and salt introduced into the thick portion of the flesh. 
This may be accomplished by making 3 or 4 cuts about S inches apart through the 
skin, but not so far as to penetrate the stomach membrane, after which the oj)enings 
are closed as well as practicable by bringing the cuts together; or it nuiy be intro- 
duced by means of a small hollow tube with a plunger to force it in as the tube is 
withdrawn. The fish are next split and eviscerated and carefully rubbed by hand with 
a composition of salt and saltpeter, 2 parts of the former to 1 part of the latter. 
This mixture is tlioroughly spread over each fish, and at the same time wherever the 
surface is cut or broken tlie fibers are brougiit together, so that the fish presents a 
smooth, neat appearance. A curer on tlie Pacific coast runs a small instrument down 
the thick i)art of the flesh on each side of the backbone and thus removes about one- 
fourtli inch of skin on each side the full length of the back, so that the saltpeter and 
salt may quickly permeate the flesh. The fish are next placed in hogshead butts, skin 
down and 3 or ■! fish to tlie layer, with one half inch of salt in the bottom aud sprinkled 
over each layer of fish. Pickle of about 90° test is then added to cover the fish, 
and after remaining in pickle about 2 days they are removed and ijrepared for 
hanging u]), by placing a wooden pin through tlie liead and 2 or ;» flat sticks at the 
back to stretch the fish out in the manner already described. After passing a rope 
yarn about tlie sticks the fish are suspended in running water for .30 or 40 minutes 
and then liung in the open air about (» hours to drain and be partly dried by the wind, 
when they are suspended in the upper part of the smokehouse, away from the heat, and 
subjected to a gentle smoking for about 24 hours under normal corulitions. Salmon 
cured in this nmnuer are known usually as Nova Scotia salmon, in contradistinction 
to the salted salmon from the north, generally knowu as Halifax salmon. 100 pounds 
of round fish 7uake about (5.") or 70 pounds smoked, which sell for 30 to 45 cents j»er 
pound wholesale and (iO to 75 cents per x)ouiul retail. 

With a view to preventing the inner surface of salmon and similar fish from crack- 
ing, which injures its appearance and also makes it liable to mildew quickly, aud to 



496 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

prevent the flsli from falling from the smoke-sticks, and to retain the natural juices, 
a process has been invented by which a piece of membranous material, such as animal 
bladder, etc., is placed in contact with the inner surface of the fish, which by means of 
its natural glutinous ingredients is held there securely. Then the fish, covered on the 
outside by its natural skin and on the inside by the artificial coating, is placed horizont- 
ally in a frame consisting of a number of triangular transverse metal-frame standards 
having base ledge projectionsaiid wire screen surfaces fitted thereon, inclined in opposite 
directions and open at the back and bottom, for exposing the fish to the smoke.* 

In smoking fresh salmon in Holhmd each fish is wiped clean, split down the back 
from the nose to the tail, the bead being left on, and several incisions made inside of 
the abdominal cavity in the thick of the flesh, but not sufficiently deej) to i)enetrate 
the skin. The blood is carefully washed out, the stomach cavity well cleaned, and the 
whole fish washed several times. The skin is then cut or gashed laterally nearly the 
length of the fish, and on each side of tliis cut several short ones are made, this being 
done to permit the salt to penetrate the tlesli more readily, so that each part of the 
fish may become equally salted. In salting, the fish are placed on top of each other 
in heaps of about 6 salmon each on tables, with the flesh upward. 

In making the piles, each fish is well sprinkled with fine Lisbon salt, and to prevent 
the stomach from forming a receptacle for the brine by sinking down, a thin, curved 
oak board is laid between the fish. The fish remain in piles from 2 to -4 days, when 
they are struck through sufficiently for smoking; but if they are not needed at once, 
they may be kept in ice houses or cold cellars for 2 or 3 months. Before the fish are 
smoked they are well washed and hung up to dry in the air, or during damp weather 
they are dried in the smokehouse. A tire is made from small pieces of oak wood in 
the center of the floor, and after this has burnt half an hour a smoke is made with 
oak shavings and fagots, over which ashes are scattered. For some markets the fish 
need not be smoked more than 12 or 14 hours, but for other markets it is necessary 
to smoke them 3 or 4 days. 

The following method of smoking fresh salmon prevails in Germany: Each fish is 
first rubbed free from slime, etc., with a towel which has been dipped in salt or brackish 
water; tlien it is split down the belly, eviscerated, and thoroughly cleaned inside as 
well as outside. Most of tlie backbone is removed with a sharp knife, some being- 
left near the tail to strengthen that part of the fish, and the flesh adjacent to the back- 
bone is pressed flat so as to present a smooth appearance, or as though there had 
been no backbone. Bay leaves, from which the stems have been removed, are next 
spread thickly with salt on the inside of the fish and tlie sides brought firmly together. 
It is then packed in dry salt and bay leaves and a weighted board laid upon the fish. 
After 30 hours or so under this pressure the fish is immersed in fresh water for half an 
hour, the salt, etc., in the meantime being wiped oft', after which it is laid out flat and 
trussed in the usual manner with 3 flat sticks and suspended in the air for about G 
hours. When sutficiently aired the fish is placed in the smokehouse and dried by a 
moderately warm smoke for .'5 hours, when the smoke is increased and continued for 
about 30 hours or until the flesh assumes a briglit red color. 

A somewhat novel method* of prei)aring saltnon for smoking was introduced in 
this country in 1878 by Lyman Woodrutt', of Ellensburg, Oreg., by means of which it 
is claimed that much of the original flavor, color, and plumpness of the fish may be 
retained. 



*See Letters Patent No. 577672, February 23, 1897, in favor of C. Waldemann, of Coslin, Germany. 



PKESEKVA.TION OK FISHERY PKODUCTS FOR FOOD. 497 

The inventor's description of the inocess is iis follows: 

After tlie fisli is caught I opeu aud cleau it. I tliuu place it iu cloau lime water, in which I let it 
remain for about 20 minutes. After removing it from the lime water I wash it clean and place it 
on the table, flesh side up, where I let it lie for about 10 minutes, when I wipe it dry, both inside and 
outside, with a clean dry cloth. For au ordinary salmon, weighing 10 jionnds, 1 take 1 teaspoouful 
of finely grouiul black pepper and rub it well into the Hesh side of the fish; next I rub in one-fourth 
of a teaspoouful of pulverized saltpi'ter iu the same way, and then 1 tablespoonful of fiue salt. 
These substances I rub iu separately, rubbing each one until it disappears. The Jish having been thus 
]irepared, I sprinkle a thin layer of brown sugar over it and fold the two sides together. I let it lie iu 
this condition lor IJ hours, when I wipe the back of the fish dry and apply a coating of linseed 
oil to the back with a paint brush, when it is ready to be smoked. In smoking the fish I commence by 
creating a heavy smoke, and allow it to gradually subside in quantity until the proper volume is 
obtained, in order to keap off the flies. 

SMOKED HALIBUT. 

The preserviug of halibut is effected principally by salting, but iu that condition 
these fish are not readily marketed and smoking' is applied to improve the flavor. 
The iudustry is contiued almost exclusively to Gloucester, Mass., but during the past 
few years small nuautities have been smoked at Boston and other points. Originally 
the smokers utilized only the surplus halibut from the freshtish trade, but the popu- 
larity of the article increasing, the Bank vessels began, about IS.jO, to salt the halibut 
taken by them when it was inconvenient to take them to market fresh. Jn 1855 the 
quantity of smoked halibut prepared approximated 400,000 pounds. The business 
reached its maximum in 1872, when about 3,000,000 pounds were prepared. Since 
that time the increasing scarcity of the fish and the enhanced demand for it in the 
fresh-fish trade have diminished the quantity. In 1880 it amounted to about 2,000,000 
l)ounds, while in recent years it has averaged about 1,000,000 pounds, selling at about 
10 cents per pound wholesale. 

Although most of the halibut for smoking is received iu a salted condition froin 
Grand Bank, Western Bank, Iceland, Greeuland, aud more recently from Bacalieu 
Bank, some are received from the vessels sui)i)lyiug the fresh-lish market, when the 
market is glutted. That was the exclusive source of the supply prior to ISGO, when 
the halibut fishery on Grand Bank and Western Bank was begun. Since the origin of 
the I5acalieu Itank fishery, iu 181)5, the smokers have received ({uantities of surplus 
gray halibut too large for the fresh fish market. 

Many of the.se fresh halibut are known among the trade as " seconds " or " sour hali- 
but," the coating or membrane of the abdominal cavity becoming slightly tainted, and 
since the taint will ([uic'kly spread to tlie entire fish it is necessary that they be salted 
at once. When the tlesh sours it puffs out, and is good for notliing except fertilizer. 

The i)rocess of dressing and salting halibut is as follows: A dressing or fletching 
gang consists of two men, and there are four gangs to the vessel. Each being x)rovided 
with a strong gall liook having a garden spade handle, they place the lialibut on a slant- 
ing cutting board on its dark side. One of the fletchers thrusts a thin knife, about 
16 inches long and l.l inches wide, into the body of the fish near the base of the dorsal 
fin through to the bjickboue, the blade being held horizontally, and cuts close to the 
ribs, removing a broad streak from one-half of the upper side of the fish. The fietcher on 
the opposite side of the table makes a cut similar to the above, separating the whole 
upper half of the fish from the backbone and the ribs. Two gashes are then cut in 

•Letters Patent No. 204647, dated June -1, 1878. 
F.C.B., 1898-32 



498 BULI.ETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

tbe tietcb, one at each end, by meaus of which it is reuioved fVoiu the cutting board. 
The other side of the fish is then treated lilfewise, making two lietches i'vmn eacli 
halibut. Formerly iu tishiug near Iceland, when all the fins were saved, the tietcliing 
knife was entered not so close to the fins, and when the tletches were removed the lins 
were cut off. During the four or five years preceding 1898 few nf the fins were saved 
on account of their large size and fatness. 

The whole tletches are at once salted in kenches in the vessel's hold, iu the same 
manner as codfish, with the skin side down and a layer of Trapani salt over each layer 
of fish, 8 or il bushels of salt being used to each 1,000 jioiinds of fish. The whole 
fletches are supposed to hold the pickle better than if they were cut in smaller pieces, 
and consequently weigh more. After remaining about 15 days they are rekenched, 
during which time the surplus salt is shaken off. To avoid com])i'essiou some fisher- 
men place the fletches in large 400-pound boxes and pile the boxes on top of each 
other. On reaching port the fish are removed from the vessel's hold and placed 
back down, with salt, in kenches 3 feet high in the fish-house, where they may remain 
for a year or more without further handling. It is not unusual for smokehouses at 
Gloucester to have half a million pounds or more of salted halibut on hand at one time. 
When it is necessary to hold them over during July and August, the appearance of 
the fish is improved if they are kept cool, and for that purpose one of the halibut 
smokers at Gloucester has a small ammonia refrigerating plant, with suitable cold 
chambers connected, where the temperature is kept about -15° or 50"^ F. 

The fresh halibut received at the smokehouses from the market \essels are cut in 
small fietches and salted in butts, back down,sim lar to those used for salting (-odfisli, 
with about 5 bushels of Trapani salt scattered among 1,000 jjounds of fish. There 
they remain from one to two weeks, when they are removed and salted in kenches 
similar to those on the vessels; or they may be scrubbed, soaked, water-horsed, and 
smoked at once; but this is not usually done, because of the desirability of working 
off the old stock. It is important that the fietches be thoroughly salted, otherwise 
the smoked product will be liable to spoil quickly. 

When the market demand warrants their use, the fletches are removed from the 
kenches, washed thoroughly in fresh water with corn brooms or bristle brushes, and 
soaked in water for 3 or 4 hours. The water is then changed and they are again 
soaked for about the same length of time. This soaking is necessary in order to 
remove the coating of salt from the fish, and to soften its fiber so that the smoke may 
penetrate the flesh. On completion of the soaking they are water-horsed, skin side 
up, for 5 or 6 hours with weights on top. They are next placed on flakes similar to 
those used in curing codfish, where they are exposed to the sun's action for about 24 
hours, which may extend through several days, the fish being placed in small piles 
and covered with flake boxes during the night or rainy weather. After drying the 
fletches are cut in small pieces, from 2 to G pieces to the fletch, with a gash in each 
piece where the flesh is thin and the skin appears tough. 

The fletches are then strung on smooth, round, hard-wood stic'iis about 2 feet long 
and !| inch in diameter, or, as at Boston, small iron or steel rods 3.\ feet long, the sticks 
passing through the splits or gashes cut in the tletches, and froni*5 to 7 pieces to each 
stick 2 feet in length, and 8 to 12 pieces to those 3;\ teet long, each i)iece being 2 or 3 
inches from the adjacent ones to permit the smoke to i)ass freely among them. The 
sticks witli the fietches attached are then i)asscd into the sniokeliouse. 

The imncipal smokehouse at Gloucester consists of a series of 10 comijartments 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOK FOOD. 499 

side by side, and feet wide, 14 teet long, and about L'O leet liigli. Tlie flooring is of 
lattice work, under wliicli is a \ ault about <i feet deep for generating tlie smoke. 
Witliin each compartment is a lane or passageway extending the lengtli of tbe room, 
on each side of which are arranged 3 sets of parallel bars, one end of each set resting 
on upright poles forming the side of tlie lane and the other resting against the wall of 
the compartment. The first set of jiarallel bars is about 4 feet from the lattice floor, 
the second ;> feet above the first, and the third 3 feet above the second and an equal 
distance below the roof. Upon these bars are placed the ends of the sticks which hold 
the halibut. Each stick will carry from 5 to 7 Hetches and about 20 sticks will rest on 
each pair of parallel bars. The capacity of each of (he 10 comjiartments is about 120 
sticks, or (iOO to ,SO(l Hetches, equivalent to about 3,0UO pounds of smoked halibut. 

The fuel for smoking consists principally of ship carpenters' chips of oak, though 
recently oak edgings have been u.sed, with sawdust to smother the flames. Some houses 
use sawdust exclusively. This fuel is arranged along tlie sides of the vault, the entire 
middle siiace being left vacant, and the fires are built and continued until the sraokiiig 
is completed, usually in from 2 to 5 days. In damp weather moisture collects on the 
fish and the process may then requiie a week. During the winter it is jiossible to 
keep the fires hotter, and the smoking may be completed in 2 days. Oare must be 
taken not to let the fires get too hot, for then the fletclies may become too soft to hang 
on the sticks, dropping to the floor. At all times the doors are kept slightly open to 
l)ermit a circulation of air to keep the halibut cool, and they will also "take the smoke" 
better. The entire decrease in weight by dressing and smoking is about 70 per cent, 
a live halibut weighing 100 pounds producing about 30 jiounds of smoked fish; but 
as received from the kenehes iii the vessels 100 pounds yield about 82 pounds. 

There are three principal grades of smoked halibut, namely, " heavy chunks," 
"medium chunks," and "strips," classiflcatiou being made according to the thickness 
of the Hesh. The napes and the thin parts of the tail do not go to the regular grocery 
or fish trade, being used mostly for " free lunch" at restaurants. While connoisseurs 
prefer the meat somewhat dark in color, yet the bulk of the trade requires it of a light 
straw-color. It is packed in boxes ranging in size from 1 pound to 500 pounds, the 
30-pound boxes being the most papular. About 4 years ago <iuite a busiuess was 
started in packing it in 1-pouud and 2-pound "bricks," similar to boneless cod, but the 
trade was destroyed by persons placing smoked pollock on the market as halibut. 
During hot weather a snuiU f^uantity of salt is sprinkled over the halibut as it is 
being packed in the boxes, and under ordinary conditions the product will keep for G 
or 8 months, or even longer. When intended lor warm climates, smoked halibut is 
sometimes placed in hermetically sealed zinc boxes incased in wooden boxes, the 
zinc boxes having cai)acity for .50 pounds each. There is a little trade in smoked 
halibut placed in small glass bottles, with wide tops covered with cork stoppers. 

The market is confined to the northern parts of the United States, none being sent 
south of Washington except in small quantities to Louisville and Memphis. The prin- 
cipal demand is from New England, New York, Chicago, and the West, the value 
approximating !• cents per pound wholesale. In 1876 an eflbrt was made to introduce 
smoked halibut into tbe l^uropean markets, and samples were sent from Gloucester to 
London, Livei'pool, (ilasgow, Cadiz, and St. Petersburg. No returns were received 
except from London, and IjUgUsh dealers expressed the opinion that it was too salt for 
their trade. At the IJerlin Fishery Exposition in 1880, smoked halibut was exhibited 
by Messrs. VVm. H. Wonson & Sons, and a medal was awarded for its sujierior quality. 



500 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

SMOKED HADDOCK OR FINNAN HADDIE. 

The curing of haddock by smoking originated about the middle of the eighteenth 
century at Findon, Scotland, the cured product being known in the English markets as 
"Fiudon haddie," which later was modified into "Finnan liaddie." Originally it was 
salted and dried, and afterwards soaked and placed over a smoldering lire of dried peat. 
But the demand soon becoming very great, it was cured in special buildings erected 
for the purpose, and at present large quantities are prepared at Aberdeen, Scotland, 
at Grimsby and Hull, England, and at other places in northei-u Europe in a manner 
similar to that employed in the New England States. 

Finnan haddie was first prepared in the United States at Eockport, Mass., about 
ISoO, but the business was soon abandoned. About ten years later Thomas McEwan, 
a Scotchman, began to cure it in a small way, at Portland, Me., the product being 
marketed principally in Canada. D. Weyer engaged in the business about 1865, 
and on Mr. McEwan's death in ISTli he was succeeded by John Loveitt. From time 
to time other firms came into the business, and as the product became better known its 
sale in the United States increased. In 1878 about 2,250,000 pounds of dressed had- 
dock were smoked in Portland alone, making about 1,200,000 pounds of Finnan haddie, 
whereas in 1889 the five companies engaged in this business employed 48 men and 
utilized ;',,57(),000 pounds of dressed haddock, costing $71,400, which yielded 1,903,500 
pounds smoked, worth $88,357 wholesale. The facilities for obtaining haddock at 
Boston led to the establishment of the business tliere in 1887, and at present the output 
at Boston equals that at Portland. Finnan haddie are also prepared at Eastport, Me., 
at New York City, and at Gloucester, ^lass., where flhe business was established in 
1893, and at St. Johns and Digby in the British Provinces. The present annual 
product in this country approximates 4,000,000 pounds, worth $200,000. 

While the North American Provinces still receive a large part of the output, the 
consunn)tion of Finnan haddie in the New England, Middle, and Central States is 
increasing, especially in Chicago and Cincinnati, some being sent as far as California. 
Formerly they were sold by the dozen, and conseciuently only the small fish were 
smoked, but at present the sales are made by weight, and haddock of all sizes are 
used. A singular feature in connection with the Finnan haddie trade in the winter of 
1898 and 1899 was the exi)Ortation of small haddock from Boston to Digby for smoking 
purposes, those fish being obtainable cheaper in Boston than on the Nova Scotia coast. 

To make a good product of Finnan haddie requires experience, as well as much 
care and attention, especially in the pickling and smoking. When received at the 
curing house the fish have usually been split down the belly to the vent and evis- 
cerated, as if prei)ared for the fresh-fish market. They are first beheaded and washed 
thoroughly with a stiff brush, all the black membrane lining the abdominal cavity 
being removed. They are next sjdit down to the tail and a cut made along tlie right 
side of the backbone so that they will lie out flat, and the rough edges of the back 
bone are removed. They are then immersed in strong salt brine, made of Liverpool, 
Cadiz, or Trapaui salt, for 1 or 2 hours, according to the weather and the temperature, 
as well as to the size and condition of the fish and the particular tlavor desired, the 
exact length of time for iiickling being learned only by experience. 

On removal fiom the brine they are fastened to the sticks from which they are 
suspended in the smokehouses, the napes being stretched out flat and ])ierced by two 
small iron spikes or nails fixed in the smoke-sticks. These sticks are about 1.1 or 2 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 501 

inches square at tlie end and 4 feet long, 3 fish being usually hung fi-om each. The 
sticks with the lish attached are placed on frames for a few hours to allow the moisture 
to dry from the fish, wlien they are suspended in tlie smokehouse, which is generally 
like those used in smoking herring, the sticks being placed in tiers, one above another, 
with space between to allow the smoke to circulate. A fire of hard wood, usually 
oak, is started over the floor of the smoking kiln and allowed to burn from 8 to 18 
hours, when sawdust is applied, smoldering the fire and producing a dense smoke, 
which thoroughly impregnates the fish. In smokehouses with a low ceiling the smok- 
ing can be completed in 4 or 5 hours. In some smokehouses no wood is used, the 
curing being effected by burning hard-wood sawdust, rock maple or beech being 
preferred, and the temjierature is kept as high as practicable without burning the 
fish, which are placetl high up in the bays. The time of cooking or smoking depends 
on the condition of the fish, temperature of the air, and the probable time to elapse 
before consumption, but never exceeds one night. 

When the smoking is completed the fish are removed from the smokehouse and 
placed on racks for cooling, and when thoroughly cooled they are packed in boxes 
containing from 20 to 400 pounds each, but mostly .^O pound boxes, and shipped to the 
trade, usually by express. Only enough are cured at a time to supply the immediate 
demand, as it is important that they reach the retail dealers in good condition. During 
warm weather they will keep only a few days, but when the weather is cool they will, 
under ordinary conditions, keep from 10 days to 2 or even 3 weeks. If it is desirable 
to keep them longer tliey must be smoked much harder. 

The season for Finnan haddie begins in October and lasts until the following April. 
100 pounds of round fish yield about 55 pounds smoked, and the wholesale jn-ice ranges 
from 3i to cents per pound. The choicest haddie are tender. The inside is of a 
light yellowish-brown or straw-color. It is alleged that some curers add saffron to 
the jjickling brine to improve the color of the fish. 

SMOKED STURGEON. 

Practicallj'^ all of the sturgeon flesh used in this country is smoked before going to 
the consumers. This is usually done in the large centers of (ierman population, and 
principally in New York, Chicago, Milwaukee, Sandusky, Buffalo, and Philadelphia. 
Tlie business was started in 1857 by Mr. B.K. Peebles in New York City, and reached 
its greatest height about 1890, the scarcity of sturgeon during recent years restricting 
the extent. In New York alone about 1,000,000 pounds are smoked annually, consti- 
tuting over one-half of the fish smoked in tliat city. Along the Great Lakes tlie 
smoking of sturgeon began about 1865, these fish not being used tiiere prior to that 
time. As first prepared at Sandusky and Toledo they were dressed, salted, and 
smoked in large strips for 8 or 10 days and sold as smoked halibut. But the smokers 
soon adopted ni3thods similar to those in New York, and the business increased and 
was of considerable extent ten or filteen years ago. In 1872 Mr. J. W. Milner reported 
to th& U. S. Fish Commission that 13,800 sturgeon, averaging 50 pounds each in 
weight, were smoke-cured at Sandusky, and in 1880 it was found that the business had 
increased to 1,258,100 pounds; but the decreasing abundance of sturgeon on the lakes 
has resulted in a ftilling off in the quantity smoked. The total annual product in the 
United States is now about 4,000,000 pounds, worth $720,000. 

Sturgeon lor smoking are received from the Delaware River and other estuiirics of 
the Atlantic coast, from the (ireat Lakes, and irom the Columbia liiver. The lake 



502 BULLETIN OF THE T'NITEn STATES FISH COMIMISSION. 

sturgeon (Acipenser rubicundus) is the most desirable for smoking, the product selling 
ill New York Oity for 24 or 26 cents per pound. Columbia Eiver sturgeon ranks next, 
with an average value of 3 or 4 cents less than the Great. Lakes. The Atlantic coast 
sturgeon {Acipenser stHvio) shows yellow streaks when smoked, and the meat is also 
somewliat more coarse and red than the delicatessen trade desires, and sells in New 
York for G or 8 cents less than the smoked Great Lakes sturgeon, or about IG to 20 
cents per pound. The prices prevailing in New York are quoted, since that is the 
principal market in the country for smoked sturgeon and the choicest product is there 
prepared, but these prices are somewhat higher than those ])revailing at other points, 
especially along the Great Lakes. In Chicago smoked lake sturgeon usually sells at 
18 to 20 cents per pound wholesale. 

In the early history of the industry the sturgeon intended for use after the iishing 
season was over were dressed and salted in butts or barrels, whence they were removed 
as reipiired, being soaked out belore smoking, as is now the case with Halifax salmon. 
At present, however, the surplus sturgeon are almost invariably kept frozen in cold 
storage until required. Before freezing, the fish are dressed, the heads, tails, vi.scera, 
tins, and backbones being removed. Practice differs in the various localities in regard 
to removing the skin. Until the last G or S years all sturgeon were skinned, and that 
is at jn-esent tlie common practice with the Atlantic coast fish. But about 1890 the 
practice of leaving the skin on was introduced along the Great Lakes, and is now 
general in that locality. Formerly the Columbia IMvcr sturgeon were skinned before 
being frozen, but at present nearly if not quite all of those i)laced in cold storage have 
the skin left on. Before freezing, the fish are usually cut into four piecres, about the 
size of the freezing pan, or in smaller pieces suitable for smoking, the former being 
more frequent. The methoilsof freezing and subsequent <'ol(l storage have already 
been described. 

On removal from cold storage the fish are thawed by exposure to air of moderate 
temperature, being turned once or twice duiing the operation, or, better still, by 
immersing them in water of medium tein])erature. They are then treated exactly as 
though received fresh from the fishermen. They are cut into suitable chunks, 2 or 3 
inches wide and weighing l.l or 2 jjounds, the width varying accoiding to the thickness 
of the meat. These chunks are then brine salted in barrels oi- hogshead butts, about 
5 jwunds of No. 2 salt to 100 pounds of fish being sjirinkled among the chunks and 
sufficient brine of about 8,")^ strength being added to cover the fish. 

Some smokers, however, use no dry salt, depending entirely on very strong brine in 
which the tish remain from G to IG hours, according to the temperature and strength 
of the brine as well as the size of the pieces. One vi^ry successful smoker uses dry 
salt without brine during the summer, and in the winter uses brine only of about 98^ 
salinometer test in order to economize time, since it takes about IS hours to strike the 
fish in dry-salting, whereas 10 hours are sufticient for striking in brine. In general 
dry-salting is preferred, since its tendency is to make the flesh harder and firmer. In 
some localities the trade requires very light, salted fish, and they remain iii brine only 
15 or 20 minutes, being stiri ed about during the immersion. 

On removal from the pickle the jiieces of tiesh are strung on steel or iron rods 
about one-third of an inch in diameter and 3 feet long, the rod passing through the thin 
part of the chunk and S or 10 chunks being strung on each rod. They are at once 
dipped in fresh water to remove surplus salt, slime, etc. In some establishments the 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 503 

pieces arc soused in fresh water immediately ou removal (Vom tlic pickle. In case tlic 
(ish liavc lu'cii salted only 15 or 20 minutes, they are not dipped or rinsed. After drain 
ing for a few moments, or, better still, drying in the open air for several Lours, they are 
susiteiided in the lower part of the smokehouse from 4 to feet above the fire, where 
they are exposed to a gentle smoke with doors open anywhere from 1 to 5 hours, 
according to the weather and the flavor of the product desired. When the weather is 
sultry it requires twice as long as when it is clear. Then the doors or dampers are 
closed and a hot hickory, maple, or oak fire is built and the fish cooked from 1 to 2 
hours, care being taken that it does not become too hot and melt or fall from the rods. 
On completion of the cooking process the meat is allowed to cool, either by opening the 
doors of the smokehouse or by removal to the open air, when it is ready for the trade. 

While the foregoing are the methods in general use, yet many smokers have special 
processes of tlieir own. One of the most successful smokers on the Great Lakes ojicrates 
as follows: The small pieces of flesh, 1^ to 2 pounds iu weight, are first rubbed with 
No. 2 packers' salt and put in tight barrels with salt sprinkled among them, abouj 
2{t pounds of salt in all being used to each 100 pounds of fish. In about 7 or S hours, 
when the fish are saturated with the salt, they are removed, rinsed in two waters, 
strung on wire hooks, and suspended from the smoke-sticks. After draining for an 
hour they are placed in the smokehouse in 2 or 3 rows, 5 to 7 feet above the floor, and 
subjected to a hard wood smoke for 7 or 8 hours at an even temperature. 

One hundied pounds of dressed sturgeon yields from (i.3 to 70 pounds smoked, 
and the i)r()duct usually keeps one or two weeks under ordinary conditions. 

Notwithstanding tlie great scarcity of sturgeon and its consecpient high price, 
tiie consunii)tion of smoked sturgeon amounts to about 4,000.000 i)ounds annually. 

It is not practicable to hold smoked sturgeon in cold storage, because of its 
tendency to mold, but it is canned to a small extent. 

SMOKED CATFISH. 

Tiie increasing scarcity of sturgeon with the consequent high price has resulted 
in the smoking of channel catfish as a substitute. These are obtained chiefly from 
the Mississipiii lliver, especially in the vicinity of Memphis, and they are smoked in 
Chicago, St. TjOuIs, and the Middle Mississip[)i Valley. This industry is of very recent 
development, but as it furnishes a satisfactory substitute for sturgeon, which are 
becoming so costly, it will probably grow to considerable proportions. 

Being intended jvs a substitute, the catfish are smoked iu identically the same 
manner as are sturgeon. The fish as received at the smokehouse are usually beheaded 
and eviscerated. They are skinned and cut into small i)ieces, weighing about I or li 
pounds each, and are pickled for or 8 hours in tight barrels. This may be accom- 
plished by rubbing the pieces with salt and placing them in the barrel either with dry 
salt scattered among them, or simply by placing them iu the barrel with dry salt or 
with strong brine. On removal from the brine the pieces are rinsed by dipping in 
fresh water, to remove slime, surplus salt, etc.; they are then attached to the smoke- 
sticks and drained for an hour or so, and placed in the smokehouse, where they are 
smoked for 7 or 8 hours in the same manner as sturgeon are treated. 100 pounds of 
dressed catfish yield from G5 to 70 pounds smoked, and the product sells usually at 
about 15 or 16 cents per pound. The total annual product of smoked catfish in the 
United States probably does not exceed 50,000 pounds, and its sale is confined prin- 
cipally to those who are willing to acce])t a substitute because of its being cheaper. 



504 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

At several points in the Mississippi Valley the small catfish are smoked whole, 
like lake herring. They are split to the vent and eviscerated, the head and in some 
instances the skin being left on, strnck with salt in tight barrels, and smoked for a 
few hours in the manner described for lake herring. The demand is small, the busi- 
ness amounting probably to 10,000 or 15,000 pounds. 

SMOKED EELS. 

Smoking eels is one of the industries introduced into this country by German 
residents, and it is carried on in New York, Philadelphia, Buffalo, Sandusky, Chicago, 
Milwaukee, Washington, and various minor i)]aces. The product will keep only a 
week or two under ordinary conditicnis in cool weather, and the extent of the business 
In each locality is generally limited to the local demand. 

Generally the eels are received at the smokehouse fresh, directly from the fish- 
eries, but some are also received frozen from cold storage. In the latter case they are 
thawed by immersing them in water a few hours or by exposure in the open air. 
■Some smokers '-slime" the eels with salt; that is, rub the skin with a small (juantity 
of fine salt to remove the slime therefrom. In dressing, the fish are split from the 
head to the vent and the viscera lemoved. It is desirable to continue the splitting 
down to the end of the tail sufficiently deep to remove the large vein along the back- 
bone, but sometimes this may be pulled out without sijlitting the fish more than an 
inch or two beyond the vent. Few smokers, however, give attention to this item. The 
eels are immersed in strong brine from If to 7.i hours, according to strength of brine, 
size of fish, and the desired flavor. This brine should be quite strong, about 20 pounds 
of Liverpool or other good salt being required for each 100 pounds of fish. 

In New York the eels are usually pickled for 3 hours, while on the Great Lakes 
the length of the time is generally about 7 hours. On removal of the fish they are 
washed, bristle brushes being used by some smokers, while others simply dip the fish . 
in water for removing the slime and surplus salt. A few smokers throw them in a 
tub of water and beat them with a net for several minutes to acconiplish the same 
purpose. The eels are next strung on iron or steel rods one-third inch in diameter, 
the rod passing through the head of each eel, or through the throat cartilage and out 
the mouth, and hung in the ojien air a few hours for drying. But if the atmosphere be 
moist or the saving of time necessary they may at once be i)laced in the smokehouse. 

In New York, where small brick ovens are used, the fish are subjected to a mild 
smoke for about 4 or 5 hours until tliey have acquired the proper color, when the fires 
are gradually increased and they are hot-smoked or cooked for 30 or 40 minutes. At 
Bnti'alo and some of the other Great Lakes ports, the smoking is usually at an even 
temperature throughout and continues for <i or 8 hours. Mahogany or cedar sawdust 
is used in New York for making the smoke, while hickory or white-oak wood is used 
for cooking, the latter being preferred. In Washington the eels are suspended in the 
hogshead smokehouses over a fire made of oak and hickory wood and dried for 20 
minutes, when the hogshead is covered with sacking and thus hot-smoked for 3 or 4 
hours, the fires being sprinkled with water from lime to time to produce a hot vapor. 
The smoking must be carefully attended, for if tlie heat becomes too great the fish will 
curl up out of shape. A good test to determine whether the cooking is sufficient is 
the ease with which the skin may be separated or peeled from the flesh whei-e the eel 
has been split. 

Tlie decreasf in weight by dressing and smoking is about 3.~i per cent, 100 pounds 
of round eels yielding <'>5 to 75 iiounds smoked. In New York the i)r()duct sells for 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 505 

about 20 ceuts per pound, while at Buffalo and other (Ireat Lakes points the price is 
usually 14 to 15 cents per pound. When eels have been pickled G or 8 hours they 
ordinarily keep 10 or 12 days; but when the salting has been only 2 hours, as is usual 
at New York, they are liable to mold after 5 or G days. Smoked eels keep a shorter 
length of time than almost any other smoked fish. 

Eels are sometimes skinned before being smoked, the process being the same as 
above described, except that less salting and smoking is required, and it is also very 
difficult to keep them from falling down off the rods in the smokehouse. 

The trade in smoked eels in New York is probably not 30 per cent of what it was 
15 or 20 years ago, but along the Great Lakes it appears to be increasing. The annual 
product in the entire country is probably about 150,000 pounds, worth .f 27,000. There 
is some demand for smoked eels in cans, which is met bj' two fish-canning establish- 
ments in New York City. The smaller eels are used for this purpose, and tliey are 
smoked somewhat more than those sold to the delicatessen trade. 

The following method of smoking eels prevails to some extent in northern Europe, 
especially in Germany: 

The head, skin, tail, and viscera are removed, and the eel is split open the entire length, and the 
backbone and many of the smaller bones attached to it removed. It is then laid In strong salt brine, 
where it remains for 6 lionrs, and is then wiped dry with a linen towel and is covered with the follow- 
ing preparation, which has been pounded in ,1 porcelain mortar: One large anchovy, 1 ounce of fine 
salt, 8 ounces of powdered sugar, 1 ounce of saltpeter, and sufficient butter to make a paste of the 
ingredients. The eel, thoroughly cured with this prejiaration, is rolled up tightly in the ibrm of a 
disk, beginning at the tail end, tied with a cord to hold it in position, .and sewed up in a linen cloth, 
which covers the disk and allows the cud to project. These disks are next suspended in an ordinary 
chimney smokehouse and subjected to a strong smoke for 5 or 6 days, then allowed to cool and become 
linn, when they are ready for the table. 

SMOKED MACKEREL. 

There is a small business in smoking both fresh and salt mackerel in New York 
City and a few other points on the Atlantic seaboard, the output amounting to prob- 
ably 8,000 pounds of the former and 35,000 pounds of the latter. The fresh mackerel 
are cured in very nearly the same way as lake herring, except that usually they are 
not split, being prepared round. The fish are first struck in brine, in which they 
remain for 12 or 14 hours, then removed and opened at the vent with the point of a 
knife to let the pickle in the abdoniirial cavity escape. They are next put on smoke- 
sticks, drained and dried for 2 or 3 hours, and jilaced in the smokehouse, where they 
are subjected to a gentle smoke for 4 to 5 hours, until properly colored, when fires are 
built and the fish cooked for a couple of hours, as in case of ciscoette or lake herring. 

In preparing salt mackerel for smoking, the fish are cleaned and the dark stomach 
membrane removed, when they are soaked in fresh water for 6 to 12 hours, or in some 
localities from 15 to 24 hours, according to the size and the degree of saltiness. On 
completion of the .soaking they are washed, strung on rods or smoke-sticks, drained, 
and hung in the upper part of the smokehouse and subjected to a gentle smoking for 
5 to 15 hours at a low temperature. 

No. 2 mackerel bring about IG cents per pound and extra large smoked mackerel 
20 to 30 cents per pound, but generally it is the smaller fish that are used for this pur- 
pose. The trade in these fish is very much less than formerly, the (|uantity used in 
New York City being only about one-tenth of what it was from 1880 to 1885, but the 
business timing that period was mncli greater than theretofore, resulting from the 
salted mackerel being received at tlie inMrkets in .Tune and .July instead of accmpleof 
mouths later, as formerly. 



506 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

SMOKED SHAD, FLOUNDERS, LAKE TROUT, CARP, ETC. 

In tlie (Jliesapeake region and at various points along the coast small quantities 
of shad are smoked, usually in precisely the same manner as already described for 
river herring or alewives. Formerly many barrels of "economy shad" salted on tlie 
Kennebec Kiver were smolied, but the demand ceased about 1880. A superior (piality 
of smoked shad may be made by rubbing flue salt, saltpeter, and sugar or molasses 
over the fresh fish, and after they are struck, smoking them a few days at an even 
temperature. These are far superior to those prepared from salted shad. 

A few flounders are smoked each year in New York and other populous centers of 
the Atlantic seaboard, the quantity probably amounting to about 15,000 pounds 
annually. The small tionnders weighing half a pound or less are used, and these are 
eviscerated, pickled with brine in butts for about 2 hours, strung on smoke rods, 
drained, and cold-smoked for 8 to 10 hours. Sometimes these fish are hot-smoked 
for half an hour or so after the color has been set bj' the cold-smoking. 

Menhaden and butterlish have been smoked to more or less extent during the 
past few years, but few arc so prepared at present. 

Smoked lake trout and carp are prepared to a small extent in the manner already 
described for lake herring or whitefish, but little demand exists for these products. 

Efforts have been made to produce marketable articles of smoked hake and pol- 
lock, but the business has never assumed any commercial importance. There seems 
no valid reason why smoked pollock at least should not become popular, the tlesli of 
that species seeming well suited to this method of curing. Smoked mullet is a very 
choice article, but practically none is prepared for the general inarket. 

In lS.Sr> experiments were made by the United States Fish Commission to intro- 
duce smoked kingfish, which abound off Key West. The Fish Commission report 
for 1885, p. Liii, states, in substance: 

These (isli were prepared with much care at Gfoucester, and proved to he an excellent smoked 
tish, being tested by many experts, some of whom pronounced tliem e([Mal or even superior to smolced 
halibut or salmon, being free from the rather rank taste that the smoked halil>uf sometimes has. 

Tileflsh have been smoked as an experiment by several persons, but experts differ 
as to their qualities. The Fish Commission report for 1882, p. 247, states: 

In the summer of 1879 Cajit. George Friend, of Gloucester, smoked some of the tilefisli, and he, 
as well as several others who ate them, stated that they weie excellent, rivaling smoked halibut in 
richuess and llavor. On the, other hand, Mr. William M. Wonson, 3d, does not speak so highly of its 
fine qualities .as a food-lish under the same conditions. Ho says that while it is certainly very good 
and wholesome, .as well as a desirable article of food when smoked, it can not compete with the 
halibut, and is no better, in fact, than smoked haddock. 



TEKSERVATION 01-' FISHERY I'RODUCT.S FOK FOOD. 507 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS BY CANNING. 



DEVELOPMENT AND METHODS OF CANNING. 

The various processes of canning arc all directed essentially (1) to preserving 
foods in hermetically sealed vessels from which the atmospheric air has, so far as 
practicable, been driven otf, and (2) to destroying by heat or otherwise such germs as 
may be in the food l)efoieor after it is sealed up. Heat is applied to destioy the germ 
within the food, and the entrance of other germs or putrefactive organisms la prevented 
by sealing the can. 

The credit for the introduction of this method of iireserving foods is shared between 
a Mr. Soddington, wlio in 1807 presented a description of his piocess to the English 
Society of Arts, under the title "A method of preserving fruits without sugar, for 
house or sea stores,"* and Francois Appert, who in 1810 published a book giving 
directions for a process for which he was awarded a i)rize of 1-!,(HK) francs oflered in 
the i)receding year by the I'^reuch Government for a method of preserving perishable 
alimentary substances. Tlie methods of Soddington and of A])pert were essentially 
the same, and as follows : (Jlass bottles were tilled almost to the top with the food, 
which in some cases was partly cooked, the bottles corked loosely and placed up to 
their necks in tepid water, the heat being gradually raised to a temperature between 
17(t'^ and 190'' F., and being maintained there for a, period varying from 30 to 00 minutes. 
The l)ottles were then corked securely and allowed to cool slowly in the bath. In some 
cases Soddington filled the bottles with boiling water before sealing, and he recom- 
mended further that the corks be covered and the bottles laid upon their sides, so that 
the hot liipiid might swell the corks I'.asedon the erroneous im])ression that exhaustion 
of the air is the essential feature of preserving foods, a number of methods were soon 
after and have until quite recently been devised for ai-coini>lishing the result. Among 
these methods are the use of air pumps, introducing carbonic acid or hydrocarbon gas 
into the vessel containing the food, etc.; but none of them have come into general use. 

This general i)rocess of preservation does not appear to have been very extensively 
employed until the substitution of tin cans in place of glass bottles. These seem 
to have been used first in 1820; and in 1823 a patent for them was issued to Pierre 
Antoine Angilbert.f Preserved fish had been placed in tin cans for many years 
previouSj but not in the manner known at present as canning. 

In "A treatise on fishing for herring, cod, and salmon, and of curing or preserv- 
ing them," published in Dublin in ISOO, the following method of preserving salmon is 
noted as being practiced in Holland: 

As soon as the fish is caught they cut off the end of the snont [head] and hang it up by the tail 
to let the Ijlood flow out as much as possible. A short time after they open its belly and empty it and 
wash it carefully. Then they boil it whole in a brine of white salt, often skimmed. Before it is quite 

*Hassell: Food and its Adulterations, London, 1855, 432. 
fLetheby: Chemical News (American reprint), 1869, i, 74. 



508 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

boiled thoy 1.m1;(^ it out ol'tlio liriiio auil are carel'iil not to injure tlie skin, after -whiuli tlicy let it cool 
and drip on a linrdle. Then tboy expose it for a day or two to the smoke of a fire made of juniper, 
which must make no llame. Finally, they put it into a tin box, the sides of which must be an inch 
hj>;her than the thickness of the Msh, and lill up the box with fresh butter, salted and melted. When 
the butter is coagulated thoy put ou the cover aud .sidder it to the lower part of the box. Some])ersons 
eat the fish without boiling it again, but it i.s better wheu it gets a second boiling. lu winicM' good 
oil of olives may be used instead of butter. 

Angilbeit'w method was very similar to tlie preseut processes, wliicb clifi'er in some 
minor features, but are uniform iu principle. A definite amount of tbe article to be 
Ijreserved, with some liquid, is placed in a tin can, over which the cover, containing a 
minute hole, is soldered, and the can and contents are placed iu a bath of boiling 
water. Through the small hole the air and steam escape from the can in boiling, and the 
heat also kills the bacteria. The hole is closed with a drop of solder, and the process 
of cooking is completed. 

A number of modiflcatious and improvements have been adopted, principally in 
reference to shortening the time of cooking, xjermittiug the heated air in the can to 
escape, softening the bones of small fish, filling and handling the cans, etc. 

While it is necessary that the fisli be thoroughly cooked, yet in a majority of 
cases it is equally important that they remain as short a time as practicable under 
the action of the heat. This is facilitated by increasing the temperature of the 
boiling water. Formerly the cans of fish were boiled in salt water, by which a tem- 
perature of 2.30° F. is attainable, or in water containing chloride of calcium, or sulphide 
of soda, whereby 250° F. may be secured. But these agents are each prejudicial to the 
metal of the can and the kettle, causing them to rust or wear rapidly, and by using the 
ma.ximum of heat secured by the chloride of calcium process the cans often burst, with 
dangerous effects to the workmen. About 1874, steam-tight cylinders were introduced, 
in which the cans are subjected to a very high temperature by introducing steam from 
adjacent boilers, thus shortening the time of exposure to heat and removing liability 
to burst, the outward i)ressure in the can being counterbalanced by the inward pres- 
"Sure of the steam in the cylinder. This was first applied iu 1S74 iu canning oysters. 
At first steam only was used, but it was soon found that the contact of the steam 
with the call results, to some extent, in scorching the contents tliat lie next to 
the inner surface of the can, and the oysters or fish have a slightly burnt fiavor in 
consequence, the can itself also exhibiting a bluish color on the inside. This was 
remedied "by placing the cans in water, below the surface of which the sui)erheated 
steam is admitted. The i)ressure upon the intermediate water is transmitted to the 
outside of the can and counterbalances the pressure from the inside until the cooking 
has been completed. The fish or oysters ou the inside of the can are also acted ujjou 
uniformly by the heat, and neither cans nor contents injured, even if the temperature 
be raised to 250° F. or more. By this process, which has been generally adoi>te(l, the 
cooking is done in much shorter time and at greatly reduced expense. 

To remove the air from the can it was formerly customarj' to leave a minute hole 
in the lid, heat the can and contents by nearly submerging the can in boiling water, 
aud then solder the small hole. At present the cans are hernn^tically sealed and boiled, 
then punctured to permit the expanded air to escape, when they are resealed, aud 
the process of cooking completed. An improved method has been devised, in which 
the air is extracted from the can by means of tubes connecting the tin with a vacuum 
chamber, but it is little u.sed in canning fishciy products. 



PRESEKVATION OF FISHEUY PRODUCTS FOK FOOD. 509 

. All objection to the cauuiuy of small fish is the lai-ge uumber of bones. Ordi- 
narily the heat dev^eloped in the process of canning destroys the cohesion of the 
particles of the bones, so that they may be masticated and swallowed without incon- 
venience, but the bones of some small flsh are not so easily softened. About 1867 
it was found that by placing the flsh in vinegar and subjecting them to a temperature 
of ITO"^ F. for several hours, according to the size of the bones, the acid of the vinegar 
dissolves the lime salts contained iu them. This process is somewhat costly and the 
vinegar is objectionable to some consumers. 

In 1S72 it was found that the bones could be softened without using \inegar, by 
successive steamings for several hours, with an intervening cooling. A patent for 
this process was issued J\Iay 21, 1872, to Isaac L. Stanly, of New York City, who thus 
describes the process with special reference to canning menhaden: 

First put the fish, after being dressed and prepared, into open tin or other snitahle boxes or 
vessels, and place the same iu a steam chest, which is afterwards closed. In this couditio:i steam the 
fish with steam of 212'^ F., or thereabout, for 5 hours, more or less, after which they are taken out of 
the steam chest and put on taldos to cool and drain for about 5 or 6 hours. The fish arc then jjacked 
in tin boxes filled with olive or other oil, and the boxes afterwards closed and the covers soldered or 
sealed. Said boxes containing the fish are next put into a tank or chest, which is afterwards closed, 
and heated by steam or otherwise to a temperature of from 217^ to 220" F., or thereabout, for a period 
of from 2 to 5 hours, according to the size of the fish or its bones. 

An objection to the use of tin cans in preserving food products is the liability of 
the lead in the can to affect and taint the contents, which sometimes results in lead 
poisoning. This danger is not great when good materials are used in making the 
cans, except when they are filled with such articles as shrimp, the acid iu which acts 
upon the tin. This is remedied by introducing a lining between the inner surface of 
the can and its contents. This lining may be textile fabric or a coating of asphaltum 
cement. Silver plating has been employed, and a lining of selected corn husks has 
also been used to a limited extent. For an account of these methods see iip. 523 et seq. 

The most satisfactory way of overcoming this liability to lead poisoning is by 
using cans sealed without the use of solder. There are several varieties of these cans 
on the market at present, the joints being made tight by introducing a gasket or 
washer of rubber, paper or similar material between the overlapping tin and crimping 
or folding the edges so as to hold them together. Some of these cans are drawn by 
machinery out of one solid piece of tin plate, and others have an outside soldered 
seam in the body only. The additional cost of these cans has confined their use to 
the preservation of the more costly varieties of marine i>roducts. 

A great ini])rovement in canning was the introduction, about 2,5 years ago, of 
the use of solder in the form of twisted strands cut into rings of the proper size 
and containing on its surface the proper quantity of tiux. By twisting a strand, or 
by iiidting two or more strands into a cord, the exterior will contain a. multitude of 
small depressions. The wire is converted into rings by winding it on a wooden 
cylinder of the required diameter, a cut is made through the wire the whole length of 
the cylinder, and the rings are slii)ped off. The rings are coated with resin or other 
suitable fiux, the depressions become filled with it and hold a sullicient (pmntity for 
soldering purposes. This quantity is regulated by the method of twisting tho wire 
or the manner of applying the finx. If to be used for square tops, the wire is wound 
on a rectangular block of the required size and then cut. It is appaient that when 
these rings are aiiiilied to the cajiping of tin cans no more solder or resin need be used 



510 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

tbiiii i.s actually uecessaiy to solder ou the cai), saving a large quantity of material 
over the old method of using bar solder and avoiding smearing the top of the can. 

In 187!) Charles 0. Lane, of New Westminster, British Columbia, introduced au 
improvement in cans, conforming to the natural shape of the fish, to avoid cutting it 
into small pieces. The can is in two parts, approximating resjjectively the shape of 
the two halves of the fish divided transversely to its length, and is so titted that it 
may be adjusted longitudinally to the length of the lish, one half being somewhat 
smaller than the other at the open end, so that it will lit into the other. The patentee 
thus describes his invention; the claim relates especially to the method of constructing 
the pieces forming the can, so as to avoid waste and reduce the amount of soldering 
to a minimum : 

The can is minle iu two parts, out- part being somewhat smaller than the other at the open end, 
so that it will lit into the other. Kacli of the.se parts is made iu two pieces, the pieces heinjj stamped 
out of slioet metal and soldered at the. joints or meeting longitudinal edges. These halves of the ends 
have each stamped in them a recess or llatteued portion, which admit of a certain cxjiansion during tlio 
boiling process, and of contraction when the air is blown otf and the can and (ontents are liiially 
cooled. This llatteneil portion or recess formed in these pieces makes a flat place on the outside; and 
facilitates p.jckiug of the cans or storing on the shelves of the dealers in good order. When lying on 
either side the can rests on these Hat parts, and thej- may be placed one above another without sliding 
about on account of the irregularity of their general shape. 

Each can is formed of four jjieces, two of which are stamped out to be approximately of the form 
of the head and shoulders of a lish, while the other two are shaped to lit the tail half of the fish. 
These are got out in cjuantities, and the two halves of each part are united, and the longitudinal seam 
is soldered by the aid of the mechanical bath, which is easily accomplished when the can is empty. 
This enables me to do the largest portion of the work of can-making, including the long side seam or 
joint, mechanically, with but little hard labor, and during the idle season and before the fish commence 
running. When the two halves are thus :nade ready to receive the lish it will be seen that the sur- 
rounding transverse joint is all that is left to be done, and this renders the labor to be performed iu 
the actual canning so slight that the fish may be put U]i in this manner to^^onijietc wilh any other 
form of canning. 

After the separate ends are made iu the manner described the fish is placed in the open end of 
one in the pr^'pcr position, and the other half is ])laeed over the other end of the fish. The two open 
ends thus come together, the smaller slipping inside the larger. At this central joint I place a V- 
shaped piece or strip of a scddering metal, which fits between the two ]iarts to form the transverse 
joint in the final soldering, both by filling it up and by partially melting. 

As the fish vary somewhat in size, it will be seen that the jiarts must be telescoped or pushed 
together until they fit the fish snugly before the transverse or central joint is soldered. This will 
insure a perfect fit to every fish, and will prevent it from sliding ab(uit in the can. 

By making the can in this manner small sheets of tin may he used with very little waste in cut- 
ting, and at the same time cans can be made which will correspond to the size and shape of the fish. 
It will be manifest that either of the halves may be sealed up independently of the other by simply 
fitting a tlat head or cover to the large, open end and soldering it in place after the can is filled.* 

Among the devices contrived during the last fifteen years to facilitate the 
canning process, machines for filling the cans are numerous. But these have not been 
so generally adopted in the canning of fish as iu preserving vegetable products, the 
fish in hand tilled cans presenting a neater appearance than those filled by machinery. 
However, on account of the great saving of labor, they are used in a number of 
salmon canneries of the Pacific coast. 

One of the fir.st of these, invented! in 1880 by A. H. Moore, of Ellen.sburg, Oreg., 
is so arianged that the fish, after being cut up iu suitably sized pieces, is placed in a 

♦Letters Patent No. 221325, November 4, 1879. t Letters Patent No. 227283, May 4, 1880. 



PKESEKVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 



511 



hopper and forced or fed by a pluuger into a mold correspoudiug in size to tlie can. 
A knife then cuts ofl' the mass, and another xilunger forces the mass of fish from the 
mokl into the can, which is then removed and sealed. The principal objection to 
this is that the portion of fish is not properly shaped to tit the can, being left flat on 
one side and great pressure has to be exerted to force the fish into the mold. 

During the same year an improvement on this process was invented* by Robert 
1). Hume, the well known salmoncanner of the Pacific coast. This improvement 
consists in the employment of a carrying belt operated by an automatic pawl and 
ratchet, whereby the material is carried forward into a chute, through which it is led 
into ai shaping and compressing cylinder. In combination with this chute there is 
employed a pair of slim cylindrical shearing 1-iiives, arranged to rotate about a longi- 
tudinal axis, one within the other, in concentric circles, which cut the material to 
the exact cylindrical shape necessary to fill the can without unequal compression. 

Numerous other can-filling machines have been invented, for a description of 
which see the following letters iiateut: 



Patent 

Ku. 


Date. 


lu favor of— 


Patent 
Ko. 


Date. 


In favor of— 


259442 


June 13, 1882 


Wm. West, Keeno, Can.ida. 


356122 


Jan. 18,1887 


John B. Hodapp, Maukato, Minn. 


202.575 


Aug. 15, 1882 


AugURlinu Cro.'ihy, lieiiton. Me. 
J. Stevens, Wootistown, N. J. 


358498 


Mar. 1, 1887 


H. K. Stickney, Portland, Me. 


291799 


Jim. 8,1884 


36U541 


Apr. 5, 1887 


Do. 


297549 


Apr. 29, 1884 


Gf.o. Ackerniauu, Cincinnati, Ohio. 


361177 


Apr. 12,1887 


G. L. Merrill, Syracuse, N. Y. 


301897 


July 15. 1884 


EdranntlJordan, iJrooklvn, N. Y. 


372870 


Nov. 8,1887 


H. R. Stickney, Portland, Me. 


3041163 


Aug. 26, 1884 


Voluey Barker, rortlaiul. Me. 


373306 


Nov. 15, 1887 


D. D. llauney, Lewistown, 111. 


300658 


Oct. 14,1884 


J. Stevens, Wuodstowu, N.J. 









The preservation of foods by the canning process has now become one of the 
world's great industries, it being applied to alimentary substances of almost every 
description, and the product is of enormous extent. It was early used in the preserva- 
tion of sardines, lobsters, etc. In 1824 John Moir & Son, of Aberdeen, Scothmd, began 
the canning of salmon, game, and other meats. 

Canning was first employed on the American continent by Charles Mitchell, at 
Halifax, Nova Scotia, in 1841, and in 1842 by IT. S. Treat at Eastport, Me. The canning 
of oysters was commenced about 1844; Pacific coast salmiui were canned first in 180(!, 
and the preparation of sardines in this country dates from 1875. Yet at present tlie 
total value of the domestic output of these three products as canned approximates 
$15,000,000 annually. 

There are five general classes of canned marine i^roducts — viz, (1) plain-boiled, 
steamed, or otherwise cooked; (2) preserved in oil; (3) prepared with vinegar, sauces, 
spices, jellies, etc.; (4) cooked with vegetables, etc., and (5) preserved by some other 
process, but placed in cans for convenience of marketing. 

The first class includes salmon, mackerel, herring, menhaden, cod, halibut, smelt, 
oysters, clams, lobsters, crabs, shrimp, green turtle, etc. 

Sardines almost exclusively make up the second class. 

The third class includes various forms of herring prepared as "brook trout," 
"ocean trout," etc., mackerel, eels, sturgeon, oysters, lobsters, crabs, etc. 

The fourth class comi>rises fish chowder, clam chowder, codfish balls, green-turtle 
stew, terrapin stew, and deviled crabs. 

The fifth class is made up of (a) smoked herring, halibut, haddock, carp, pickerel, 
lake trout, salmon, eels,.sturgeon,etc., and (b) brine-salted mackerel, cod, and caviar. 



' Letters l'att;ut No. 23344'.), dated Oetubcr UK 1880. 



512 BULLETIN OF THK UNITKD STATES FISH COMMISSION. 



CANNING SALMON. 

The canning of salmon appcai-s to liave oiigiuatecl at Aberdeen, Scotland, in 1824; 
but prior to tbe establisbmeiit of salmon canneries in the United States, in 1864, the 
application of tbe i)rocess to this fish was very limited. Daring the last 30 years 
this industry has been confined to tbe western coast of tbe Nortli American continent 
and to certain Asiatic countries bordering tbe Pacific coast. It has become one of 
the great fishery industries of tbe world, tbe annual output exceeding $10,000,000 in 
value, over 09 per cent being prepared on the American continent. 

On tbe western coast of tbe United States tbe industry was begun in 1864 by 
Messrs. Hapgood, Uunie & Co., at Washington, on tbe Sacramento Eiver. A member 
of this firm bad been engaged in canning lobsters in New Brunswick, on tbe shore of 
tbe Bay of Chaleur, and methods somewhat similar were applied to the canning of 
salmon. The machinery and appliances were very crude as compared with modern 
devices. The fish, cut into transverse sections of suitable lengths, were placed in tlie 
cans and tbe cover attached, with ventholes open. The cans were then nearly sub- 
merged in fri'sb water contained in large round-bottomed iron kettles and boiled for 
an hour, after which they were removed and tbe vent closed. They were next placed 
without arrangement in an iron bath kettle containing salt water heated to a temper- 
ature generally from 228° to 230° F. After an hour's bath tbe cans were removed and 
placed in a tank of cold water. When cooled they were wiiied off, the ends painted 
with red lead, the sides labeled, and tbe cans packed in the cases. No process was 
employed for testing for leaks, and consequently about one half of the product of the 
lirst year spoiled.* Much difficulty was experienced in placing the canned salmon on 
I lie San Francisco market, but eventually tbe entire pack was sent in separate lots to 
Australia, where it netted $10 per case to tbe shippers, t 

Tbe trade gradually increased from year to year with the improved transportation 
facilities and the development of markets for the product. In 1806 thie first Columbia 
River cannery was established at Eagle Clitt', about 40 miles above Astoria. In 1874 
canning was begun in British Columbia, and in 1SS2 Alaska began to make a showing. 
Tbe total pack on tbe west coast of North America in 1892 was 1,323,000 cases of 48 
1-pound cans each, approximating in value $6,549,000; and in 1895 it was 2,175,986 
cases, worth $10,081,997 at first hands. 

During the first years of the trade South America and Australia furnished the 
consumers of the canned salmon, but as tbe output increased an English market was 
.sought. Tbe latter did not at first take kindly to the American jiroduct, but after 
persistent ettbrts on the part of some of the most extensive London wholesale dealers 
the article became better known and the people of Great Britain soon became the 
principal consumers, sometimes using 500,000 cases in a single year. 

Several species of salmon are utilized in the canneries of the west coast, the 
principal ones being chinook or quinnat salmon (Oncorhynchns tschairyfscha), blueback 
salmon or redflsh {(). iirrl-K), silver salmon ((>. Idsutch), steelbead {S<tlmo </airdneri), 
dog salmon {0. Iceta), and humpback {0. gorbusvha). 

* Hume's Salmon of tbo I'licilic Coast, p. 8. 

t Report U. S. Fish Commission, 1888, pp. 167, 168. 



PRESKRVATION OK FISHEKY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 



513 



The following .sumiiiiuy shows the iiiuiiber of cases of each species canued oii thf 
Pacific coast daring the four years cmling in 1895: 



states. 


Chinook. 


Blue- 
back. 


Silver. 


Steel- 
head. 


D"^- ^aS."- 


Total. 


1892 Washington 


134, 253 

237, 684 

14, 334 


19,441 
51, 106 


28,708 

60, 293 

1,550 


26,945 
45, 403 


29,411 




238,758 

394, 480 

15, 884 






















386, 271 


70, 647 


90, 551 


72,348 


29,411 




649, 128 


1893 "Wiishington 




129, 078 
176, 024 
26, 436 


55, 237 
23, 074 


31. 707 

62, 913 

600 


25, 663 
39, 563 


23, 480 
9,230 


17, 530 


282, 695 
310, 804 
26, 936 








Total 










331, 638 


78,311 


95, 120 


65, 226 


32,710 


17,530 


620,435 


1894 Washington 


156, 549 

216, 507 

31, Ii63 


53,717 
25, 623 


32, 118 
100, 087 

500 


23, 209 
38, 829 


33,952 
3,102 


9,049 


308, 594 

384, 108 

32, 163 




Calitbrnia 




Total 






404, 719 


79, 240 


132, 705 


62, 038 


37,114 9,049 


724, 865 


1895 W'ashinf^on 


157, 187 

316, 284 

28, 635 


70, 304 
12, 854 


81, 957 
138, 981 


18, 985 
30,693 


48 686 1 '>^ fi-'ts 


400, 752 

525, 839 

29, 035 




27, 027 



















502, 106 


83,158 


221, 338 


49, 678 




955, 626 









Note. — 468,970 cases of salmon were packed in Alaska in 1892 and 619.379 cases in 1895, making the total 
pack for the United States in 1892 1,118,098 cases, and in 1895 1,575,005 cases. 

The extent of the salmon-canuiug industry of the Pacific States in 1895 is shown 
in the following table: 



States. 


Persons 

em- 
ployed. 


No. of 
can- 
neries. 


Value. 


Cash 
capital. 


Total in- 
vestment. 


Salmon utilized. 


Salmon canned. 


Lbs. 


Valtie. 


Cases. 


Value. 


California 


198 
1,960 
1,146 


4 
26 
17 


$62, 000 
719, 225 
374, 650 


$64, 000 
942, 500 
001, 000 


$126, 000 

1,661.725 

075, 650 


1, 906, 525 
35, 299, 241 
27. 441, 724 


$52, 591 

1, 184, 529 

731, 523 


29, 035 
525, 839 
400, 752 


$128, 632 
2, 456, 698 
1, 638, 938 


Washington 

Total 


3,304 


47 


1,155,875 


1,607,500 


2,703,375 


64,647,490 


1,968,642 


955,026 


4,224,268 



In Japan about 200,000 cans of salmon {Oncorhynchus perryii and O. haberi), 
amounting in value to 24,000 yen (-$12,000), are prepared annually, principally at Hok- 
kaido and by the Sumitara and Fujino Company. 

The following description of the methods of salmon canning is from Mr. W. A. 
Wilcox's "Xotes on the Fisheries of the Pacific coast," (U. S. Fish Commission 
Eeport for 189(3, pp. .583-587): 

As at present conducted there is but slight diHerence iu the manner of preparing canned salmon 
in any of the canneries. As a rule the factories are located adjacent to or very near the lishing- 
grouuds, so that at the most hut a few hours elapse from the time the lish are freely swiniiuing until 
they are caught, delivered at the cannery, dressed, canned, cooked, and packed, thus insuring a, 
perfectly ficsh product, old or stale fish never Lcing met -with at a salmon cannery. The neatness 
and cleanliness of tlie canneries is one of the first things noticed by visitors during the packing season. 

The notes here iircsented on the methods of salmon canning wore taken in 1891) at a cannery on 
the Columbia River, .and with few exceptions represent the canneries of the entire west coast. 

The buildings connected with a 8.almon cannery are always built ,at tht^ water's edge or partly 
over the water, so that vessels or boats may come alongside and deliver their fish and supplies or 
receive the packed products. As a rule they are large, roomy, one-story frame structures, the busi- 
ness of receiving, cooking, and packing of salmon all being in the one large, high, and well-lighted 
room. The lofts are used for the storage of empty packing-cases, empty cans, nets, etc., and in some 
instauccs lar"-c rooms are there used for the manufacture of cans. Adjacent to the cannery are the rude 
quarters in which the Chinese employeis live and near by is usually the home of the superintendent. 

F. C. B., 1898—33 



514 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

Chinese have a monopoly in the canning of salmon, but never eniijage in their capture. Before 
the season opens contracts are made with some large Chinese firm of San Francisco or Portland to do 
the work so far as relates to receiving raw products and turning the same over canned, packed, and 
ready for shipment. 

As a rule the tish are bought from the fishermen at so much apiece or per pound, a price for the 
season having previously been agreed on; but in some cases the fishermen are liired by the month, 
with or without board, the fishing boats and nets in that event being furnished by the cannery. 

Contracts with the Chinese usually call for the packing of at least a certain number of cases, of 
48 pounds each, at prices ranging from 30 to 40 cents a case for Ipouud cans, and higher for half- 
pound oval or other special cans. 

A working gang of from 30 to 75 Chinese, in charge of a native expert foreman, is sent to the 
cannery in advance of the opening of the season. The men are constantly under the orders of the 
Chinese foreman, and he in turn is under the supervision of thesuperiutendent. The foreman divides 
up the duties, assigning a gang for each part of the work from the time the fish are lauded until they 
are cased for shipment. These gangs follow their particular part of the work all through the season, 
only in exceptional cases being called to any branch except their own. The receiving and dressing 
"■an", being the first to begin, are the first to finish their labor, while the jiackers are the last to begin 
and end the work of the day. If fish are plentiful, all of the men work from about 7 a. m. to 6 ji. ni., 
with only a stop for the midday meal. If .salmon are scarce, the men may have but a few hours' work. 

On the completion of the work of any gang the men must before leaving thoroughly clean their 
section. In doing so a hose is used, with abundance of water, brooms, and scrubbing brushes, and 
when the day's work is over the interior, platforms, and wharves are left scrupulously clean and ready 
for the work of the following day. 

As the fishermen arrive their catch is thrown out on the wharf, where it is received by tlie 
Chinese and carried inside the cannery and thrown into boxes on the scales. Having been weighed, 
a receipt is given to the fishermen, and the tish begin their journey through the cannery, that only 
ends after they have been canned, cooked, packed, aud cased ready for shipment. 

From the weighing scales the fish are thrown out on the door aud receive their first washing from 
a stream of water that is played on them from a hose, the fish being turned over with a pitchfork, as 
may bo necessary, to thoroughly remove all gurry and dirt. In some instances, where fish are rociiived 
faster than they can be immediately handled, they are kept cool and fresh by having, as needed, a fine 
spray of ice-cold water thrown over them from an overhead levolving pipe. The first gang receives 
the fish on the dressing tables, which are near the door. Here the first of the work begins, and to 
follow it through from its entrance to its exit, canned and cased, is an interesting sight to thousands 
of visitors during the packing season. The first operator seizes fish after fish, and with a few quick 
strokes of a large butcher knife severs head, fins, and tail. The next man opens the fish, removes the 
viscera, and scrapes the carcass inside and out. Through an oijcning in the lloor all oti'al and waste 
are at once thrown into the river and quickly consumed by schools of scavenger fish or the large num- 
ber of gulls that hover in the vicinity waiting for their food. At some of the canneries near Astoria 
receptacles for waste are provided by those interested in oil and fertilizer factories. 

The fish is then shoved along to the man standing by the side of the lieader and cleaner for the 
next washing, aud at the same time is scraped with a knife that removes the scales. The fish is tlieu 
passed along into a secoiul tank of clear water, where it receives its linal washing and cleaning and 
is made ready for cutting in proper-sized pieces. A series of semicircular knife-blades is attached to 
a roller, the blades being equal distances apart, corresponding with the size or depth of cans to be 
filled. One end of the roller is hinged, to the other end a handle is attached. The knives are raise<l 
by means of the handle, the lish is placed under them, and with one <juick, sharp blow the fish is 
entirely cut up into lengths suitable for canning. For 1-pound tall cans, 7 knives are attached to the 
roller; for 1-pouud fiat cans, 13 knives; for i-pound cans, 17 knives. The fish are now in suitable 
lengths, but must be sliced into sizes proper to enter the cans. This is quickly jierformed, and the 
pieces are i)assed on to the filling gang. 

Several men stand at one or both sides of the filling table, each supplied wi th small scales adjusted 
to the weight of the cans to be filled. In some canneries cans are tilled by machinery, but this is 
usually done by hand. As soon as filled the can is placed on the scale. If it shows full or over weight 
it is passed on, no fish being removed; but if short weight, the can is put one side to receive enough 
to make up the deficiency. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHING PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 515 

From the filler tbo cau jiasses to ii man who places it ou a swiftly revolviug plate having a 
closely tittiiig cap, and a small but strong stream of water is made to play against the revolviug can, 
removing all grease and dirt. A small scrap of flat tin is put im top of its contents, and the iire2)ared 
top is fitted on. In order to keep the top in place pending soldering, the can next goes to a man who 
places it on a revolving jdate, while, liy means of a lever operated with his foot, the top piece is forced 
down and securely held at the same time the edges are being smoothly crimped. The sealing of the 
top is ingeniously accomplished. A brick furnace has on its top a long V-shapcd trough that is kept 
filled with molten sohler. At the upper end of the solder trough and a few inches higher is a similar 
one filled with muriatic acid. From the crimping machine the cans drop in an almost continuous 
stream into the trougli with acid. A heavy endless chain passes along just over the troughs, and by 
the friction from the chain the cans are carried on first through the acid, which touches only the outer 
edge of the top of the can and prepares it to receive the solder through which it next jiasses. The 
top of each can has a small hole punched in it to permit the escape of air as the can becomes heated 
in its passage through the trough of molten solder. Here may be noticed the utility of the small 
piece of tin before mentioned as being put in the can, without which the hole is liable to be clogged 
up with fish, and, the vent being closed, the cans are liable to be badly strained, made leaky, and 
have the entire top blown out. 

The endless chain, having rolled the cans through the solder, drops them on an inclined plane 
some 30 or 40 feet in length. Shortly before reaching the bottom of this incline the cans are met with 
a shower bath of cold water from perforated pipes alongside of the incline. The bath is simply to 
cool them so that they cau be instautly handled. The cans are at once placed on iron trays, known 
as coolers; they consist of an iron frame 35 inches square, 3 inches deep, with slatted iron bottom. 
One cooler holds 86 one-pound flat cans, or 160 one-pound tall cans. The small venthole on top of 
the can is next sealed. The cooler tilled with cans is then attached to an overhead rail track and 
transferred to a large wooden vat filled with water, having a temperature of 212"^ F. The cans remain 
in this bath only a few moments, which is ample time to test them for leaks. If a can is not perfectly 
air-tight, this fact is at once made evident by small air bubbles rising from the can while In the bath, 
and it is at once removed for repairs, another cau being substituted. When the test is completed, the 
cooler is placed on a small iron-iramed car haviug a capacity of 8 coolers, one on toji of another. 
The cans are now ready for the cooking of the salmon in large retorts. 

Retorts are made of wood or iron, but are usually of boiler iron, have a round shape, and are 
about 13 feet long and 5 feet in diameter. A steam pipe extends along near the bottom. This is per- 
forated for the escape of steam, which passes through a small amount of water with which the pipe Is 
covered. On an iron track just over the pipes the loaded ears are run. Retorts usually have an oi)en- 
ing or door at only one end, but in the cannery now being described there was an opening at each end 
and two retorts were used, the few feet separating them being connected by a track by which cars of 
coolers having passed through the first retort cau pass on into the second. Each retort has a capacity 
of 4 cars, or 3,200 one-pound tall cans or 2,9.52 one-pound fiat cans. Cans of salmon remain in the first 
retort under a steam temperature of 230'^ for one hour. They are then run out, vented, and at once 
rescalcd. As the top of each can is perforated with a small, sharp-pointed iron, the heated air or 
steam is expelled, and before its place can he taken with cold air the veut is olosedby a drop of solder, 
and the can may be said to be free of air and air-tight. The cans are now ready for another cooking 
in the second retort. Here the temperature is 240 , in which one-pound tall cans remain 1 hour and 
flat cans IJr hours. Retorts are under a steam pressure of 7 to 10 pounds to the sc|uare Inch. 

On removing the cans from the retorts they have a stream of cold water thrown ou I hem, by 
which they are cooled and cleaned. They are now iiually tested for hMks or Imperfections by tapping 
each can on the top with a small piece of Iron, an experienced ear quickly detecting by sound any 
imperfection. Imperfect cans are replaced by others, .and the cans i)ass ou to be lacquered, labeled, 
and packed in boxes, each holding 48 one-pound cans or 24 two-pound cans. They are then ready for 
a distributiou that reaches almost every portion of the civilized globe. 

The cannery at which these notes were taken was provided with electric lights and ample steam 
power; the rooms were well ventilated and lighted; its walls were white with paint or whitewash. 
It is located on the Columbia River with the Cascade Range of mountains towering from 1,500 to 2,500 
feet just at its back. From these mountains the icy-cold and very pure water used at the cannery is 
brought. 



51(3 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATED FI^II COMMISSION. 

Much attentiou is given to variety and styles in cans and labels, which yearly show improve- 
ment in style and design. Sixteen varieties of cans were used in the pack of 189.5. Brands also receive 
much consideration, and in many cases have a high value on account of the enviable roputaiion of the 
goods previously packed under them. 

To supply the annual demand for 60,000,000 to 80,000,000 tin c:in8 in which to pack the salmon 
caught in the waters of the United States on the Pacific Coast is of itself a large business. Many 
packing firms make a part or all of the cans they need. This is more for the jiurpose of keeping 
desirable men employed between seasons than for any saving in expenses for cans. The bulk of the 
cans are turned out from factories at San Francisco. In April, 1893, the Pacific Can Company of Sau 
Francisco, by opening a branch factory at Astoria, filled a long-felt want of the packers in Oregon 
and Washington. For ten months in the year this Astoria branch gives employment to 80 persons, of 
whom 25 are females and 55 males. Chinese are not employed in this establishment. The weekly 
payroll averages $750, or $30,000 a year. The plant represents an investment of $80,000. 

Of late each year finds some new shape or size of can used in salmon packing, there being 16 
varieties of cans for salmon manufactured by this company in 1895. The total number of cans turned 
out in 1895 amounted to 18,500,000, of which 2,000,000 had the key attachment, on which the royalty 
is 75 cents per 1,000 cans. A large quantity of the various cans is kept on hand, from which the 
canneries of the Columbia and coast rivers and those of Puget Sound are supplied as needed. The 
tin plate used amounted to 45,000 boxes, of which 10,000 were of American manufacture and 35,000 
were imported. The average price of plate during 1895, including an import duty of $1.20 a box, 
was $4.10 a bos, averaging 100 pounds with 112 sheets each. American-made plate is 50 cents a box 
lower at Chicago than that imported, but 50 cents higher by the time it reaches Astoria, owing to the 
difference in freight — by sailing vessel from Europe of $7 a ton, or by rail from the East of $14 a ton. 

Conimauder Jefferson P. Moser, U. S. Navy, commanding tbe IT. S. Fish Commis- 
sion steamer Albatross, has given a description of the processes of canning salmon in 
Alaska, in the Fish Commission Bulletin for 1898, pages 22-34. 

CANNING OYSTERS. 

Preserving oysters by cooking and hermetically sealing them originated in the 
United States in 1844, in the establishment of Thomas Kensett, Baltimore, Md., but 
the trade appears to have been develoiied by A. Field & Co. of that city. From the 
beginning of the industry up to the present time it has been prosecuted mainly at 
Baltimore, probably not 3 jter cent of the total i)roduct since 1844 having been pre- 
l^ared outside of that city. In addition to Baltimore, oysters are canned at one or two 
other Chesapeake ports and at Apalachicola, Fla., Biloxi and Bay St. Louis, Miss., 
and Morgan City, La. The term "cove" is sometimes a))iilied to oysters prepared in 
this manner, and the higher prices prevailing in the fresh-oyster trade usually re(inire 
that the medium and small size oysters be used. 

Originally in the canning business the raw oysters were opened by hand, but 
about 1858 Lew McMurry, of Baltimore, began scalding them, this process cansing 
the shells to open and allowing the oysters to be removed with far less labor than 
would be required if they had not been heated. Steaming originated about 18(i(», the 
oysters being placed in baskets holding about 3 pecks each, and these to the number 
of about 300 were placed in a large box and there steamed. In 1862 Henry Evans, oi' 
Baltimore, devised the present method of using, in combination with the steam box, 
large cars, in which the oysters are placed. The sides and bottoms of these cars are 
■made of iron bars, so that the steam may readily pass among the oysters, partly 

* See Letters Patent No. 35511, dated Juno 10, 1862. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 517 

cooking tliem and cansing the shells to oneii freely. The track on which the cars 
rnn is laid from the wharf to and into the steam box, and thence to the shucking room. 

The details of the present process of steaming and canning follow, this description 
ajiplying especially to the business at Baltimore. 

The oysters when taken from the vessels are placed in cars of iron framework, 6 
or 8 feet long, with capacity for about 20 bushels. These cars are run on a light iron 
track, which is laid from the wharf through a steam-tight chest or box, to the shucking 
shed. This steam chest is a rectangular oak box, 15 to 20 feet long, lined with sheet 
iron, fitted with appliances for turning on steam to any desired pressure, and with a 
door'at either end which shuts closely and is so packed with felt or some other material 
as to make the Joint between the door and box as nearly steamtight as practicable. 
When a car is filled with oysters in the shell it is run into the steam chest and there left 
for 15 minutes, with the doors closed and steam admitted. The chest is then opened and 
the car run into the shucking room, its place in the chest being immediately occupied by 
another car. 13y having a sufficient number of cars the laborers may be constantly 
employed, loading and unloading in succession as they are steamed and emptied. 

lu the shucking sheds the cars are surrounded by the shuckers, sometimes to the 
number of several hundred, each provided with a knife and a can arranged so as to 
hook to the upper bar of the iron framework of the car. The steaming causes the 
oyster shells to open more or less widely, and the meat is readily removed. 

The opened oysters are then washed thoroughly in cold water and transferred to 
the "fillers' table," and the cans, when filled, after being weighed individually, are 
taken to the soldering table and there "capped"; that is, hermetically sealed. From 
the "cappers" they are jjlaced in a cylindrical crate or basket and lowered into a large 
cylindrical kettle, called the "process kettle" or "retort," which is partly filled with 
water, where they are again steamed to such a degree as to destroy all germs of fermen- 
tation. After this they are placed, crate and all, in a vat of cold water, this serving 
the double purpose of arresting the operation of cooking by cooling them and of testing 
for leaks. When suificiently cool to be handled the cans are transferred to another 
department, labeled, and packed in boxes for shipment. 

The shuckers usually work iu gangs of 6 or 8 persons, comprising sometimes whole 
families of men, women, and children. Those iu Baltimore number about 4,000, rang- 
ing in ages from 12 to 60 years, and are mostly women and children, the work being 
light and peculiarly adapted to them. They are mainly of foreign parentage. Few 
scenes are more interesting than those observed on a visit to the shucking room of 
any one of the large canning houses. At one end the cars of steaming hot oysters 
are received, and as these are arranged in long rows covering the length of the room 
the shuckers, numbering GOO or more in some establishments, surround the cars and 
with rapidly working knives hastily and skillfully remove the yet steaming oysters. 
These employees are extremely industrious, and hundreds of small dwelling houses 
have been purchased in Baltimore with money obtained by the women and children 
at work in the oyster houses. The shucking is ilone in a cup known legally as the 
"oyster-gallon cup," which holds 9 pints, wine measure. Tlie shuckers are paid at 
the rate of cents per "cup," averaging about 65 cents per day, the total wages 
paid those iu Baltimore amounting to about $80,000 annually. 

About 800 other persons are engaged in the Baltimore canneries, of whom about 
three fifths are men. These employees are paid from $5 to $25 per week, their total 



518 



BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 



wages amounting to about $90,000 annually. The largest item of expense in the 
canning houses, aside from the cost of the oysters, is the jjurchase of tin, labels, etc., 
this amounting to about $315,000 annually. The incidental expenses of the Baltimore 
canneries amount to about $20,000. The total cost of handling a bushel of oysters 
in the canning houses is about 29 cents. 

The cost of the oysters for tlie canning trade at Baltimore has averaged during 
recent years about 55 cents i)er bushel. Each bushel yields about 50 ounces of " solid 
meats." These are packed in 1-pound and 2 pound cans and cans of miscellaneous 
sizes, most of the latter being a trifle larger than the 1-pound cans, which contain 
about 5 ounces of solid meats, the 2-pound cans containing 10 ounces each. The price 
received during the last seven or eight years for the 1 pound and 2-pound cans has 
averaged about 75 cents and $1.40, respectively, per dozen. 

Tlio following summary shows the extent of the oyster canning at Baltimore 
during the most recent year for which detailed returns are available: 



Extent of Baltimore oyster canning in 1S91-93. 



Capital invested, employees, etc. 


Expenses. 


Products. 


Establishments, etc. 


Kumber, 
value, etc. 


Items. 


Amount. 


Cans. 


Ounces. 


Value. 


Number of establish- 


20 


Cost of oyster-s 

Wages paid slmckers. 
Wages paid to others. 
Tin cans, labels, etc .. 


$1, 201, 600 

73, 680 

97, 500 

320, 000 

25, 000 


Sounce cans, 9, 388.6.n0 ... 46, 943, 250 
10-ounce cans 4 643 822 1 4fi iWR 920 


• $764,450 
725,515 
366, 545 


Valiie of property... 


$1, 255, 000 
$1, 170, 000 


Miscellaneous cans 

Total 


22, 635. 000 


Persons employed . . - 
Oysters received, 


4,848 
2, 396, 763 


Total 


1,717,780 


110, 016, 470 


1,856,510 









The oysters on the Gulf of Mexico are large and less iirm in structure than those 
of Chesapeake Bay; consequently, when canned in the ordinary manner, they tend to 
disintegrate and have a somewhat slimy appearance. In 1880 a process was invented 
by Mr. J. T. Maybury by which the texture of the oysters may be hardened so that 
they may be boiled without disintegrating.* This process is as follows: 

To 10 gallons of pnre water add one half gallon of goo<l commercial vinegar and l,^o gills of 
a saturated aiiueous solution of salicylic acid, to which mixture sufticieiit common salt is added to 
idipart the requisite salty llavor to the oysters. Tlie mixture is boiled a few minutes and poured over 
the oysters iu the cans, which are at once sealed and placed in a steam bath, the temperature of which 
is 202^^ F. This temperature is gradually raised to 240" and maintained at that degree for about 45 
minutes. The cans are then vented, resealed, and steamed as before for about 30 minutes, when they 
are ready to be labeled and packed. 

The acids serve to coagulate the fatty portion of the oyster and thereby render 
its body more dense and firm. The acids are harmless and the quantity is so small 
that they are not perceptible to the taste. 

The term canning is frequently applied incorrectly to a much less permanent 
method of preserving oysters, viz, placing them in hermetically sealed tin cans or 
small wooden kegs, which contain from 25 to 200 oysters, without cooking them. By 
this method the germs within the can or keg and its contents are not destroyed, and 
the oysters will keep for only a few days, and even then the cans are usually shipped 
in iced boxes. Twenty years ago a very large part of the oyster trade was carried on 



»See Letters Patent No. 230r)(?l, dated July 27, 1880. 



PRESKRVATION OF FISHERY PRODITCTS FOR FOOD. 519 

in tliis way, but the extra cost of packages and the increased facilities for handling 
oiieiied oysters in larger packages have almost entirely done away with the shipment 
in cans. It is yet practiced along the Gulf of Mexico, especially on the Texas coast, 
and at a few points along the Atlantic coast and in the interior of the United States. 

CANNING SOFT CLAMS. 

The soft clams {Mya arenaria) of the New England coast have been canned in 
qnantitii's of greater or less extent for thirty years or more, principally by establish- 
ments ill Maine as a minor part of tlieir output. There are also a few canneries of 
whicli the principal output consists of clams. The first clam cannery iu this country 
was established at Pine Point, Me., S miles west of Portland, by Messrs. P.urnham & 
Morrill. 

The process of canning in general use is as follows: First the siphon or "snout" 
is cut off, tlie thin skin or film covering removed, and the dams cleaned in the same 
manner as when prepared for the table. They are then placed in tin cans, holding 
from (Ji to 12 ounces, after which the cans are nearly filled with the liquid, diluted 
with eitlier fVesh, salt, or sea water, and the covers soldered on. The cans are next 
placed iu crates and the coutents are cooked in, a tank of boiling water, the time of 
boihng depending on tlie freshness of the clams, usually continuing about 2 hours 
when tlie clams are fresh, and a trifie longer if they have been out of water several 
days. Tlie cans are at once vented and again sealed and boiled about li hours, when 
they are ready for labeling and boxing. 

In some establishments a lining of white paper is placed on the bottom, around 
the sides, aud at the top of the can, to prevent the contact of the contents with the 
tin, which sometimes results iu the clams turning dark. 

Tlie product of canned clams in the United States at present amounts to about 
40,0()(t cases annually, valued at $2.50 to $3.50 per case. 

CANNING MACKEREL. 

There are three distinctive varieties of canned mackerel prepared iu this country, 
differing entirely in tlie methods of preparation and alike only in that they are .sealed 
in tin cans: (1) fresh mackerel cooked in the manner usually applied to salmon — the 
oldest aud most extensively used process; (2) broiled mackerel; (3) brine-salted mack- 
erel, which are placed in tin cans simply for convenience iu marketing. 

MACKEKEL PLAIN-CANNED. 

The preparation of the first variety of canned mackerel was begun in this counti-y 
in 1843 by Messrs. Treat, Noble & Holliday, of Eastport, Me., and was carried on 
by them incidentally with the canning of lobsters. During several years following 
1843 the output was very small, averaging about 5,000 1 pound cans per year, the 
public being somewhat slow to fully appreciate the qualities of the ])roduct, but from 
that date to the present time the busiuess has been continued on the Maine and 
Massachusetts coasts in connection with lobster and other canneries, and the extent of 
the jiroduct has fluctuated from year to year according to the abundance of mackerel 
on the coast. 

In canning fresh mackerel it is quite es.sential that the fish be prepared as soon 
as practicable after being removed from the water. In dressing them the heads, tails, 



520 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

fins, scales, and viscera are removed, the fisli cleaiiscil, and soaked for a short time 
in strong brine to acquire a salty or " corned'' flavor. Tliey are next placed and sealed 
ill tin cans which are at once immersed in boiling water until their contents are 
thoroughly cooked. The cans are then "vented," resealed, cooled, and prei)ared for 
the market. The cans are usually 4i inches iu height and 3 inches in diameter, and 
hold about 1 pound of tish; 2-pound and 3 pound cans arc also used to some extent. 

The price runs from $1 to $1.30 per dozen 1-pound cans, and the product from 
r>,()()() to 3,000,000 cans annually. In 1879 the output in New England was about 
!>()0,()00 1 -pound cans; in 1880, 1,342,008 pounds, worth $150,449, and in 1881, 2,804,000 
pounds. 

The decreasing abundance of mackerel has resulted in considerable falling off in 
the output since 1885. The product in 1892 was about 1,000 cases, and in 1S98 very 
few were put up, probably not over 200 cases, prepared at rroviucetown and Boston. 

BROILED MACICEBEL. 

Canning "broiled " mackerel was begun in the spring of 1880 by Eastport sardine 
canners. Two methods are ]iracticed. The first, which originated with Mr. Julius 
Wold', of the Eagle Preserved Fish Oomioany, is almost identical with that used for 
sardines. The fish are dressed, washed, assorted according to size, dried, fried in oil, 
and sealed in tins with vinegar and si)ices. 

The second method, which is in more general use, originated with Mr. Henry 
Sellman, of the American Sardine Company. The small mackerel are split down the 
belly, the heads and tails being removed, and then cleansed and put in strong brine 
for half an hour or so. When suflScient salt has been absorbed they are rinsed, spread 
on wire trays, and placed in a steam box, where they are steamed for a few minutes. 
The fish, yet on the trays, are baked in the rotary oven described on page 527, and are 
then packed with nuistard, tomato sauce, or spiced vinegar, in oval-shaped tin boxes 
holding from 1 to 3 pounds each. The cans are sealed and subjected to a hot water 
bath, after which they are vented, cooled, and labeled. These mackerel are far supe- 
rior to any of the brands of herring, and the demand has always been greater than 
the supply. From 10.000 to 15,000 cases were prepared in 1808, about equally divided 
into mustards, tomatoes, and spiced vinegars. They are sometimes placed in fancy 
glass receptacles and are sold at high prices. 

CANNING SALT MACKEEEL. 

The demand for small packages of salt mackerel led, about 1875, to the prepara- 
tion of them in tin cans. In 1879 the equivalent of about 280,000 5-pound cans was 
prepared in Gloucester aiul Boston, about equally divided between the two places. In 
other parts of the country about 80,(100 cans were prepared during the same year. 
These sold wholesale at about §5 per dozen 5 |)onnd cans. 

In preparing this article, the commercial, brine-salted nuickerel, usually of the 
better grades, aie used, No. 2 being the most popular size. These are washed and 
scraped, to give them a neat appearance, and the heads and tails are cut oif, ami if 
large the fish are sometimes cut transversely in two pieces. In packing, a/small quan- 
tity of fine salt is sprinkled in the bottom of the can and the fish are carefully arranged 
flesh side up, except the top layer, which is placed tlesh side down. A small quautity 



PEESERVATION OF FISHKRY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 521 

of salt is then sprinkled o\er tlie fish and the to]) is soldered on. A xiuncture about 
oue-third inch in diameter is tlieii made at the side of the can, through which the 
can is completely filled witii salt brine. A tin button is soldered over this puncture 
and the can is cleaned and labeled for market. A barrel of mackerel will " mess" about 
ISO pounds, which will fill 3 cases each containing 1 dozen opouud cans. This work 
is usually done at the salting houses, tlie necessary cans being purchased of the 
can-makers, and a solderer is employed by the hour. 

In addition to the 5-pound cans, 3 pound, 4^ pound, and 10 pound cans have been 
used. The .5 pound cans are of two shapes, each of which is about 3i inches deep; the 
first is round ami 9 inches in diameter, the second is oval and 6i inches wide and 9.J 
inches long. The scarcity of mackerel during the past few years has resulted in very 
few being put up in this way. When mackerel were abundant, as 12 or 1~) years ago, 
a single firm used to ship 1,500 to 2,.')00 cases of canned salt mackerel each week, but 
probably not more than 1,200 cases were prepared in 1898. 

CANNING LOBSTERS. 

On the American continent lobsters were first canned in 184:2, at Eastport, Me., 
by Messrs. Treat, Noble & Holliday. As is frequently the case in the establishment 
of new industries, the capital was limited, the appliances were crude, and the quality 
of the product could not always be depended upon. In 1813 the firm secured the 
services of Mr. Charles Mitchell, wiio had engaged in canning during the i)receding 
year at Halifax, Nova Scotia, and who had ten years' experience in the same business 
in Scotland. Mr. Mitchell improved the processes according to methods employed in 
his native country, and no further difficulty was ex])erienced in preparing a desirable 
grade of goods. Letters patent were applied for, but the matter was not in-essed and 
the claim was not granted. During the few years following the origin of the business 
the 1-pound cans of lobsters sold at o cents each, and 3J pounds, live weight, were 
required to make a 1-pound can. No lobsters under 2 pounds in weight were used. 

In 18S0 there were 23 lobster canneries on the United States coast, and the 
output amounted to 2,OJ:!),8()(3 cans, worth $238,000; in 1SS9 it was 1,170,501 cans, 
worth $ 112,613, and in 1892 it equaled 1,235,160 cans, valued at $195,941. Since that 
year the output has been very small, the product daring 1897 and 1S98 on the whole 
of the United States coast not exceeding 20,000 cans annually. While there appears 
to be no accurate data as to the output of canned lobsters prior to 1880, yet it is well 
known to have been of much greater extent than at present. 

Prior to 1870 the industry was confined almost exclusively to the United States, 
but the growing .scarcity and the increased price of lobsters on the Maine coast 
soon resulted in the establishment of numerous canneries in the British Provinces by 
New England capitalists. The number of these canneries has greatly increased, and 
they now furnish nearly the whole supply of this product. The quantity of canned 
lobsters produced in the Dominion of Canada during the year 1892 amounted to 
12,524,498 1 p(mnd cans, valued at $1,758,425, and in Newfoundland 1,258,308 cans, 
valued at !t''*l7(>,083, making, with the 1,235,100 cans produced in the United States, an 
aggregate of 15,017,966 l-])ouud cans, worth $2,130,449. From 1870 to 1893, inclusive, 
the total product of canned lobsters in the Dominion of Canada was 254,106,936 
1-pound cans, with a total value approximating $38,116,000. 



522 liULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH rOMMISSlON. 

Ifc is cheaper to can lobsters iu the British Provinces than iu the United States. 
In this country lobsters, when obtainable, do not cost mnch more than in the Prov- 
inces, but wages are at least 50 i)er cent liigber here than in Canada, where tlie men 
receive about $1 ])er day and the women and children abont 50 cents per day. In 
addition to this, there is a duty on tin in the United States, while that article is free 
of duty in the Provinces. 

The process of canning lobsters on the coast of Maine and in the British North 
American Provinces is as follows: 

The lobsters are tirst boiled in a large vat or kettle about 20 minutes, after which 
they are heai)ed on large tables, usually with the backs up, care being taken to have 
the bodies more or less straightened out. The boiling is frequently done in the after- 
noon, in order that the lobsters may have sufficient time to cool during the night. The 
next morning certain men, designated as "breakers," break off the claws and tails from 
the bodies, throwing the latter witli the refuse, for the reason that, though tlie carapax 
contaijis some good meat, it is difficult toextr;\ct and clean it. The sweetbreads, how- 
ever, are generally saved. The claws are then split by the "crackers," using a small 
hatchet or cleaver, which opens them so that the meat can be readily taken out. 
Formerly the tail was split in a similar manner to the (;laws, but at present the meat 
is punched out from the tail by means of a small "thole" pin, or other suitable pointed 
implement. The meat is next thoroughly washed iu water, the tin cans tilled and 
weighed to insure uniformity, and then covered and cleaned, after which they go to the 
sealers, who solder the covers down. Next comes the bathing, the most difticult part 
of the process. The cans are immersed in boiling water for about an hour, when they 
are taken out and " vented," a small hole being punched in the cover to release the air, 
after which they are sealed again and boiled for 2 hours longer. They are afterwards 
allowed to cool, tested to insure their being tight, and then scoured, painted, and 
labeled. If the cans are boiled in a retort, say at a steam pressure of 1.5 pounds 
to the square inch, which is equivalent to 250° F., the time of boiling is reduced about 
one-half.* 

The preservation of " shell lobsters" was originated as early as 1840 in Ohristiania, 
Norw.iy, by Jacob March. In that year he took out a patent in his native country 
for putting them up iu such a manner as to exhibit the red color of fresh-boiled lobsters. 
It appears that he dipped them in boiling salt water until they reached this color, and 
then made an incision in the soft part under the tail, thus releasing the water within 
them, and then ])laced them iu hermetically sealed vessels. The process was never 
emi)loyed extensively and was abandoned within a few years. 

The canning of shell lobsters iu this country was begun iu 1879, at Southwest 
Harbor, Me. This product is the outgrowth of a demand in the British market. for 
whole lobsters for garnishing purposes. Finding difficulty in obtaining lobsters, as 
commonly prepared for the trade, sufficiently fresh for this purjiose, the London agent 
for one of the leading packing establishments in Maine suggested the idea of meeting 
this demand, and satisfactory results were obtained after many experiments. The 
lobsters, 12 and 11 inches in length and of good condition, are selected from the general 
stock and boiled, the tail bent under the body, and without being removed from the 
shell are packed in long cylindrical cans suitable for this purpose. The method of 
boiling is similar to that ordinarily used in canning lobsters, the only difference being 



*See The Fishery Industries of the United States, sec. v, vol. 2. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PROnUCTS FOR FOOD. 523 

t'uit tliey are boiled a little longer in order th;it tiie heat may thorongbly penetrate the 
shell and i)ieserve the meat. 

"Deviled lobsters" in half pound cans have been prepared at several canneries, 
the article originating in 1871.* 

Twenty years ago London was the principal distribnting market of the world for 
canned lobsters, England, France, and (ieruiany receiving about three-fourths of the 
entire product of the world, which at that time amounted to about 400,000 cases of 48 
1-pouiid cans. The consumption in the United States, then comparatively small, has 
steadily increased; so that while the total pack has decreased to abimt 2.")0,000 cases 
a year, tht^ United States consumes about 100,000, or 40 per cent. 

CANNING SHRIMP. 

The shrimp-canning industry was established in this country in 1875 by Messrs. 
Gr. W. Dunbar & Sons, at New Orleans, La. Their factory was occupied mainly with 
the canning of various fruits, and utilized shrimp only during the months in which 
they are most abundant. As the product became better known the extent of the 
business increased and canned shrimp is now, next to oysters, the most valuable of the 
marine products canned on the Gulf of Mexico. 

The quality of the product during the tirst year of the business was unsatisfac- 
tory, as the direct contact of the shrimp with the tin caused, during the pi-ocess of 
cooking and thereafter, a i)recipitation of black or dark matter which discolored the 
shrimp and detracted from their flavor and richness, and the li<iuid in the shrimp 
constituted a medium for diffusing the coloring matter throughout the can, so that all 
portions of the contents were equally att'ected and discolored. This precipitation or 
coloring is believed to be caused by the action of sulphur contained in the shrimp on 
the metal of the can. After much experimenting, Messrs. Dunbar overcame the 
trouble by interposing a lining between the meat and the can, which protected the 
tin from the action of any acids contained in the shrimp. They also place the shrimp 
in the lined can while they are in a dry or moist condition and devoid of free liquid, 
and seal the can without adding any liquid to its contents. The lining consists of 
any textile fabric in the form of a cylindrical bag or sack, the diameter of which, when 
filled, permits it to fit snugly within the can. The use of this lining was protected by 
Letters Patent 178910, dated June 20, 1870, and Eeissue 9957, dated December G, 1881. 

The process of canning shrimp at that time, according to the specifications 
accompanying the letters patent, was as follows: 

The shells having heen removed from the shrimp in the usual manner, the fish is thrown into 
salt water of about 6^, and there remains for an hour, more or less, and from thence to kettles filled 
with water and brought to a bciiling heat, after which they are placed on drippers and cooled and 
thoroughly rinsed with fresh coM water, from which, so soon as thoroughly dripped and in a moist 
condition and without the addition of salted or otlierwise prepared licjuid, they are placed in the sack, 
the same having been previously arranged in the can. So soon as the saelc is filled, the month theret f 
being jiroperly secured, tlie lid or head is placed in position on the can and immediately sealed. Tlie 
cans are thru snlijeeted to a steam bath or placed in kettles containing boiling water and boiled for 
two hours at the highest temperature attainable, and which completes the process. 

The present method differs somewhat from the foregoing in a few minor particu- 
lars. As soon as practicable after being landed from the luggers, the shrimp are 

" The Fishery Industries of the United States, sec. v, vol.2. 



524 P.ULT;ETIN OF THK TTNITE11 STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

boiled in salt water for 30 niiuutes, aiid separated from tlie sliells by girls, who use 
only their Angers for this purpose. The slirimx^ are then dunii)ed on a small platform, 
and the shell particles, tentacles, etc., are i^icked off, after which they are passed 
through a blower on an endless platform, where the remaining dust and other foreign 
matters are removed. They are next placed in 1 pound cans containing 10 ounces 
each, the lining having been inserted. When the cans are filled, the lining covers 
are adjusted and the lids sealed on and the cans placed in a batli of boiling water 
for 2 hours. On removal from this bath they are ready for labeling. 

Messrs. (t. W. Dunbar's Sons (successors to G. W. Dunbar & Sons) now have the 
only shrimp cannery in Louisiana, though for a few years prior to 1891 a factory 
owned by Messrs. A. Booth & Co., of Chicago, was operated at Morgan City. At 
Biloxi, Miss., are three canneries which devote considerable attention to preparing 
shrimp, the first of these having been established about 1880. 

In 1897 the output of canned shrimp in Louisiana and Mississip]n was 1,39.5,168 
1, IJ, and 2 pound cans, which sold for $156,190. 

In 1879 a shrimp cannery was established at Galveston, Tex., by Messrs. Pecor 
Brothers. To prevent discoloration of the shrimp, instead of placing a lining of some 
textile fabric between the fish and the can, as in the Dunbar process, this firm lined 
the can with a coating of asphaltum cement, which was permitted to dry thoroughly. 
Strips of paper were then cut, and, after being coated with a hot solution of paraffin, 
were placed within the can so as to fully cover its interior surface.* The can was 
filled with shrimp, and the subsequent treatment was substantially as liereinbefore 
described. In 1880 this cannery was reported as having put up 7."),000 1 pound cans 
of shrimp, worth $13,000, but a large decrease in abundance of shrimp in Galveston 
Bay necessitated its closing down a few years later. 

Another method of lining the inside of tin cans to prevent the direct contact of 
the shrimp with the metal was devised by Louis Lenglet, of St. Louis, Mo. This con- 
sists in providing a lining of corn husks, covering the inside annular body of the can 
as well as the top and bottom. It is claimed that corn husks have the advantage of 
requiring no jjrevious treatment with acids to neutralize or destroy any peculiar odor 
or flavor of the material, and that such lining keeps its shape well, is sufficiently thin 
and flexible, and not expensive. 

Shrimp are also canned in Japan by a process similar to that employed in this 
country. Specimens of the Japanese product were exhibited at the World's Fair, 
Chicago, 1893. 

CANNING CRABS. 

The canning of crabs originated in this country about 1878, with Mr. James 
McMeuamin, then located at Norfolk, A^a. He first attempted to follow the methods 
used in canning lobsters, but not meeting with satisfactory results he started out on 
original lines, the product being first placed on the market in the fall of 1878. On 
account of the greater abundance of crabs in that vicinity, Mr. McMenamiu moved to 
Hampton, Va., in April of 1879, and began operations on a large scale. In that year 
another cannery was established at Hampton by Jlr. T. T. Bryce. In 1879 these two 
canneries used 6,000,000 crabs, producing 84,000 2 pound cans, worth $1(),800. One 

• Letters Patent No. 226347, dated April 6, 1880. 



PRESEKVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 525 

or two other canneries have beeu established since, the principal one being at Biloxi, 
Miss. The present annual output in the United States is valued at about $45,000. 

The season for crab canning in the Chesapealie begins iu April and continues 
until October, except that sometimes the work is discontinued during June and July 
on account of the large number of crabs with spawn, in which condition they are not 
suitable for canning. 

The crabs are placed in opeu slat-work cars, usually of a size suflBcient for hold- 
ing about 2.")0 dozen, and are rolled into a steam box, where they are cooked 20 or 30 
minutes, when tliey become red. Tlie cars are then rolled out of tlie steam chest and 
the crabs passed to the "strijjpers," who remove the outer shells, viscera, and small 
claws. The crabs next jiass to the "pickers," consisting principally of women and 
children, who remove the meat from the bodies and the claws, crusliing the latter with 
the handle of the knife employed in the work. Different operatives are employed for 
picking tlie bodies and the claws. The pickers generally receive from 2 to 3 cents per 
pound for this work, and the most skilled among them i^repare 40 or 50 pounds per day, 
but the average quantity is about one-half of this. 

After being weighed the meat is placed into cans of two sizes, 1 pound and 2 
pounds, about 12 crabs being required to each 1 pound can. The cans are sealed, 
boiled for half an hour, and then vented. They are at once resealed and boiled for a 
second time (making the third time that the meat has been cooked) for about 2 hours. 
The length of the second boiling inay be shortened by increasing the possible tempera- 
ture of the water, which is usually done by adding chloride of calcium thereto. 

When the cans have been properly cleaned and labeled, they are packed in cases 
holding 48 1 -pound or 24 2-pound cans, and sold wholesale at about $8 and $G per 
case, respectively. A package of shells usually goes with each case of cans, four 
shells being allowed for each 1-pound can.* 

It is stated that in 1891, 3,838 barrels of crabs, worth $6,141, were canned in 
Virginia, yielding 1,095 cases of 1-pound cans and 2,880 cases of 2-pound cans, worth 
$7,884 and $16,128, respectively. In 1890, (J,303 barrels, or 2,386,256 crabs, worth 
$5,090, were used, producing 1,277 cases of 1-pound cans and 5,472 2 pound cans, 
worth $9,194 and $30,643, respectively. In 1897 the output was 1,992 cases of l-jwund 
cans and 3,898 cases of 2-pound cans, worth $14,177 and $22,064, respectively. 

When intended for nearby markets, and for consumption within 4 or 5 days, the 
crabs are not usually canned, but the meat, after being removed from the shell, as in 
case of canning, is placed in 10-gallon tins, a piece of ice placed in each tin to keep 
the flesh cool, and the tins placed in refrigerators. When orders are received, the ice 
is removed and the meat repa(tked in tin or wooden buckets of suitable size, contain- 
ing .i gallon, o gallons, 8 gallons, and 10 gallons, and the buckets placed in a small 
barrel in much the same way that ice cream is packed for shipment, ice being placed 
all about the can or bucket. Sometimes a small lump of ice is jilaced in the bucket, 
and some dealers also use an antisei)tic, such as boracic acid. The crab meat is sold 
at $1 to $1.50 per gallon, wholesale, and with each 10-gallon bucket half a bushel of 
empty shells are sent without extra charge. This trade is carried on at Annapolis, 
Crisfield, Hampton, Norfolk, and other ports on the Chesapeake Bay. 



'Fishery Industries of the Uflited States, sec. v, vol. 2, pp. 646-617. 



526 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

SARDINES. 

The most valuable of the mariue i)roducts cauued in oil is the preparation of 
small fishes of the herring family, in the form known generally as sardines. This 
industry was established at Nantes, France, about the year 1834, and it was introduced 
in the United States about LS75. It has reached its greatest development in Brittany, 
the most costly brands on the market being canned on that coast. Sardines are now 
prepared in France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Norway, United States, Brazil, Mexico, etc., 
but the industry has three principal geographical centers: (1) the Mediterranean 
coasts, (2) the Bay of Biscay and the Atlantic coasts of Spain, and (.5) the coast of 
Maine. In each one of these regions methods are employed quite at variance with those 
used in the others. 

The preparation of sardines began in the United States about 1875 and has grad- 
ually increased in extent, though it was confined within comparatively luirrow limits 
until 1880, when 13 new canneries were established, there being only 5 operated pre- 
viously. In 18SG there were 4,5 canneries, and since that year the value of the output 
has averaged about $2,000,000 annually, all prepared on the coast of Maine, and 
nearly all in the counties of Washington and Hancock. On the Maine coast 37 factories 
were engaged in canning sardines in 1880, 4G in 1892, and 60 in 1898. A few sardines 
are prepared also on the Pacific coast of the United States. 

SARDINE CANNING IN MAINE. 

The herring used in the sardine industry in Maine are from 5 to 10 inches in 
length, and are taken from the middle of April to the middle of December, by means of 
weirs, and to some extent in gill nets and seines. Tlie present method of preparing 
these fish as sardines is as follows: 

On reaching the factory the fish are at once distributed along the middle of the 
cutting tables where tiiey are quickly decapitated and eviscerated. It was formerly 
customary to remove the tails, but this is no longer practiced. As each fish is dressed 
it is thrown into a cutting box placed under the edge of the table. They are next 
washed by being dipped with a scoop net into a washing tank, through which water 
is constantly running, and are immediately immersed in strong brine from 15 minutes 
to 1 hour, the length of time depending upon the size and fatness of the fish, their 
freshness, and the condition of the weather. In cold weather, owing to their firmness, 
they must be salted longer than in the summer. As soon as they are sulliciently 
"struck" the herring are removed from the brine and allowed to drain in baskets. 
Tiiey are afterwards carried to the Haking room and arranged upon flakes, which are 
wooden frames about 3 feet long and 22 inches wide, filled in with wood or galvanized 
wire stretched across and sei)arated by 1 or 2 inches, so as to give a free (circulation of 
air and to touch the fish at only a few points, in order that evaporation may go on 
from ail parts of the body. Each Hake holds about 110 fish, placed in rows with the 
tails in tlie same direction, so that when fixed in the drying room, with the anterior 
part lowest, the moisture will tnore readily drip from them. 

Next comes the drying process, which is of much importance, and great care must 
beobser\ed that no decomposition occurs before it is completed. Originally the fish 
were dried in the open air by action of the sun, as is the present practice in France, 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 527 

but owing to the moist atmospheric conditious about Eastport, eveu those factories 
that make use of this method whenever possible are obliged to supplement it by 
artificial means. The factories are, one after another, discarding entirely the sun-drying 
process, occasionally using a drying room, but more frequently adopting a patented 
drying apparatus similar to a baker's rotary oveu. Drying rooms are usually located 
on the top lloor of the cannery, with movable racks for holding the flakes oblic^uely, 
each rack containing 40 or 50 flakes, placed about 3 inches apart and directly over 
each other. The room is supplied with a constant current of warm, dry air, brought 
from stoves or furnaces in the lower part of the l)uilding by means of large pii)es, and 
which finally escapes through ventilators in the roof. 

The oven that has been quite generally adopted in the sardine canneries was 
introduced by Henry SeUman in 1880,* and is similar to an ordinary rotary oven of 
large size, and serves not only to dry but at the same time to cook the fish. It is 
about 15 feet square and IS feet high, and contains or S skeleton iron frames 
attaclied to arms extending from a cylinder and which remain in a horizontal position 
while revolving in the oven, like the cars of a Ferris wlieel. In these ovens the fish 
are subjected to a temperature of about 250° F. for 10 to 25 minutes, according to the 
size of the fish, but the time re<iuired for drying varies. In open air or in a drying- 
room it may take the greater part of a day ; in a furnace-heated drying apparatus from 
2 to 7 hours, and in an oven only a few minutes, as before stated. The use of ovens 
is becoming more popular, and most of the canneries are now fitted with them. 

When fish are oven-dried they need no further cooking, but are at once cooled 
and packed in cans. In other cases they are placed in shallow wire baskets or other 
l)roper recei)tacles and immersed in oilof suitable quality and heated to a temperature 
of about 220"° F. This is for the purpose of frying and ex])elling from the fish all 
moisture remaining in them after the drying process. Cottonseed oil is used mostly, 
and it is placed in a pan to the depth of about 2 inches and the fish inmiersed in 
it from 1 to 3 minutes. This oil can be used only a short time, since water and 
gluten from the fish pass into it and injure its flavor. For this reason the pan must 
be cleaned fre(iuently and the oil renewed. The oil is boiled either by direct furnace 
heat or by the passing of steam through coils of pijjc in the frying tank. The latter 
was introduced in 1S84 and has many advantages over the old method of direct furnace 
heat. About half of the factories which fry their fish do so by means of steam, and, 
as is the case with other improved methods, the number is increasing. 

Mr. 11. E. Earll states on page 178 of U. B. Fish Commission Bulletin for 1887: 

It is s.aiil that the lish which liavc been fried havo a l>etti'r flavor, ami, liaviDg .absorbed more oil, 
keep lotif^er than those baUed in au oven. It is claimed, however, by those usinj; ovens, that by the 
baking proeess very nineh dejiends njion the skill of the baker, and that at its best it may j)roiliice 
results e(|nal if not suiu'rior to those of the old system. It appears that the first fish fiied in a given 
([uantity of oil are better than the best baked fish, but that, as it is necessary, in order to kee]) the 
expenses within reasonable limits, to use tlie same oil for frying successively a great many pans of lish, 
the Huid soon becomes lilled with scales and small jiarticles of lisli, which burn on the bottom .and 
impart to the product a bitter .and uiipleasaut taste. In baking, on the other hand, when it is ]iroperly 
done, the fish are all of a (juality equally good. 

Instead of the ordinary methods of cooking, .some factories employ an endless 
belt, 200 feet long, which runs in a wooden case 100 feet long. At one end of this case 
is a revolving fan which forces a blast of hot air over the lish that have been sx)readou 



* Letters Patent No. 223GS2, dated January 20, 1880. 



528 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

the belt at the other end of the case. After passing along the belt once the fish go 
into the batli of boiling oil and are treated in the usual manner. With this apparatus 
the several rtakers reipiired by the old method are represented by one woman, who 
spreads the fish on the belt, and a man who turns a crank which moves the machinery,* 

After leaving the frying-pan or the oven and draining and cooling, the fish are 
assorted according to size, and those of like size are placed in tin cans or boxes pre- 
viously filled with oil, or, in some cases, mustard sauce or vinegar with spices. Up to 
within a few years, although other oils were used in the frying, the sardines were 
packed in oliv'e oil, eitlier alone or mixed with inferior kinds, but at present its use 
has been almost entirely superseded by cottonseed and nut oils. Tiiis change is 
accounted for by the facts that the heavy duties make olive oil very expensive, that it 
will not keep as well as cotton-seed oil, and that the latter can be made exceedingly 
palatable. It is claimed by some cauners that even at the same price cottonseed 
oil is more desirable for the Maine sardines, because the fish imparts its distinctive 
herring flavor to olive oil much more readily than to cotton seed, the latter covering 
it up somewhat. It is stated that at some of the canneries even tallow oil and herring 
oil have been used. Peanut oil, which is sometimes used, is said to be even better than 
cotton-seed oil. The oil is usually flavored to the taste by adding lemon, sugar, and 
various spices. The olive oil used in France for sardines is said to be often largely 
adulterated with American cotton-seed oil, as well as with palm and other oils. 

In packing the fish, those of the most desirable size are packed with a dozen in 
each can; the number is never smaller than seven or eight. Tlie smaller fish are 
generally x^acked in oil in "quarter-cans," which are 4.^ inches long, 3 inches wide, 1 
inch deep, and contain from 9 to 12 herring measuring from 3^ to 4 inches when dressed. 
The larger fish, measuring from 8 to Di inches in length when whole, or from 4 to 4J 
inches dressed, are occasionally placed in oil, but more frequently are put in mustard, 
spices and vinegar, tomato sauce, or other condiments, in "half cans," holding from 
10 to 10 fish. These cans are 4J inches long, 3i wide, and 2 inches deep. Occasionally 
"three-quarter" cans of oil sardines, or in tomato sauce, and " half" or " three-quarter" 
cans in spices are put up, and in rare instances small fish are put up in mustard or 
spices in quarter-cans. 

When the cans have been filled with fish the covers are sealed on, and the filled 
cans are then ready for bathing, and are placed in boiling water, where they are 
allowed to remain from li to 2 hours, according to the size of the cans. Fish jjrepared 
with spices mnst be boiled longer than those prepared entirely with oil. The time of 
boiling may be considerably reduced by introducing a proper quantity of chloride of 
lime or other chemicals into the water, by which the temperature may be raised to 
upward of 2.50^ in the open air. Some canneries accomplish this by using a closed bath. 
By either of these methods the time can be reduced to about 30 minutes. 

Formerly, alter the bath, the cans were punctured, to allow the inclosed air to 
escape, and the puncture was thereupon closed with solder. In this process, when the 
cans are punctured the escaping air carries a portion of the oil with it, so that when 
the cans are opened the fish are found to be only partly covered with oil, and conse- 
quently not in a state of perfect preservation. If the can has been properly sealed, 
the top and bottom become level or horizontal when boiled the second time. The fact 
that it does not expand into a level position is sufficient evidence that there is a defect 



• Bull. U. S. Fish Commission for 1890, p. 117. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 529 

iu the soldering, and it i.s at onue resolderiid, paiietured in two or more places, and 
placed in liot oil until it is again lilled with oil, when the pnuctures are soldered. 

In 18SJ: it was discovered* tbat the process of venting could be avoided by making 
the can with concave top and botto:a. The depression of the middle part causes the 
air in the cans to collect about the edges of the top, and the heat of the soldering 
tool heats the air and causes it to expand and escape in front of it as it passes along 
the edge, so that when the soldering is completed the air will be sufficiently expelled. 
Venting is no longer jiracticed iu preparing the ordinary quarter size, but it is gener- 
ally adhered to in the treatment of the half and three-(iuarter cans, t Some of the 
factories partly immerse the half aud three-quarter cansiu boiliug oil, driviug out the 
air aud rendering venting unnecessary. 

In the specilications forming a part of the Letters Patent No. L'-'^OSL', dated 
January 20, ISSO, issued to the inventor of the rotary oven for baking, the following- 
account is given of the methods of preparing sardines on the Maine coast, and the 
improvements effected by using that oven: 

After the fish aro lauiled they aro subjected to the process of decapitatiou aud diseutrailment 
and salting for :i suitable ])(U'iod. They are tbeu washed clean and placed iu shallow baskets to draiu, 
after which they are separately spread ou lath or other suitable frames for drying to a certain extent. 
After the fish have beou eufificiently dried by exposure to the atmosphere or to an artificial curreut of 
warm, dry air they are placed in shallow wire baskets, or any other suitable receptacle, and innuersed 
iu oil, suitalde iu (|uality aud heated to a certain degree, for the purpose of fryiug and expelling from 
the tish auy parts of water which remain iu them after the drying process. They are thin allowed to 
draiu, aud are packed iu tin cans. This mode of drying by natural or artificial currents of air and 
frying the fish iu oil is, for reasons hereinafter stated, very deleterious to the ijuality of the article of 
fish to be put up, ami the iuventiou herein sot forth tends to do away with aud overcome the former 
objectionable method. The fish used for the pnri)03e indicated are of a very tender aud delicate 
nature. They do not admit of much handling, aud, owing to this delicacy of uature, are subject to 
very rapid decomposition, as they should bo salted but very slightly. 

The process of drying the fish, either in ojien air or by an artificial current of warm dry air, 
takes so much tinu;, that decomposition of the fish to a greater or less extent is unavoidable, as 3 to 24 
hours are consumed in drying the fish sufficiently by the modes indicated. 

In frying the fish in oil, as now practiced, the quality of the oil in which (jiiantitics of fish are 
fried is rapidly deteriorated by the water from the fish, which is not evaporated, aud froju the gluten 
from the tiah passing into it. A large percentage of the fish is also lost by breaking during the ]>rocess 
of fryiug iuoil. In our improved process the fish, after landing, are decajiitated, disentrailed, salted, 
and washed. They are then spread on wire netting or other frames made of suitable metal and of any 
suitable size. They are then subjected to a process of steaming by live steam, which is injected from 
a steam-boiler into an upright chamber of suitable size, lined with sheet metal, and provided with 
narrow internal fianges or shelves, upon which rest the wire frames which hold the fish. The steam 
passes through the closed box and escapes through an opening iu the side or end opposite to where it 
is introduced. A door opening outward is also provided for obvious reasons. 

The tiuu! consumed iu this process is from 10 to 20 minutes, according to the power of the 
steam employed, and may be performed within 2 hours after the fish are first landed. This steaming 
process has the effect of evaporating the water from the lifli in a much more thorough manner than 
by the old process. It has also the effect to prepare the fish for the subsequent baking process, and by 
killing any germs iu them preventing rapid decomposition, keeping them sweet, and retaining their 
natural fiavor. After the steaming process the fish (which remain ou the same frames ou which they 
were steamed) aro subjected to the baking heat of a revolving reel oven, operated by steam or any 
other i)ower, uutil they are fully cooked or baked. They are then taken from the revolving reel oven, 
cooled a certain time, and packed in tin cans, which are supplied with fine oil, mustard, sauces, spices, 



*See Letters Patent No. 2!m710, dated .lune 3, 1«RI. 

tSee the I'ishery Industries of the United States, section V, vol. 1, pp. 511-518, aud Bulletin U. S 
Fish Commissiou, 1886, pp. 177-179. 

F.C.B., 1898—34 



530 



BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 



or vinegar, as desired. The cans are then soldered and subjected to the action of a liath of hoiliiig 
water for a certain period, for the purpose of expelling all air from the cans by the usual process. 

The essence of the whole mode of procedure consists in preserving the ilsli against decomposition 
by steaming and baking, as set forth, thus i)reventiug breaking of the skin, curling and breaking of 
the body, and thus evaporating from the Hsh all water, and then, while iu this baked condition, 
subjecting theiu to the preservative process of canning similar to that jiractieed with sardines, inclosing 
in tin cans with oil, mustard, spices, etc. 

Au appliaace receatly devised for testing- the cans before they iire filled is tLii.> 
described by Mr. Ansley Hall : 

Itcousists of a cylindrical tank about 5 feet in length and 1 foot in diameter, fixed in an iipright 
position at the end of a table. The tank is lilleil with water to within about 18 inches of tlie top by 
means of a pipe leading from the boiler of the engine. Air is forced through another pipe into the 
space above the water by the air pump which supplies air for oxygenizing the llame of the kerosene- 
oil stoves used in soldering. The pressure of air, which requires to be about 12 pounds, and the 
quantity of water are regulated by steam and water gauges. On the table, a few feet from the tank, 
is a tin pan or tray, in the center of which is a rubber pad, a little larger than a sardine can. A pipe 
litted with a valve leads from the tank and passes up through the pad from the underside of the 
table. The can when tested is placed bottom upward over the nozzle of the pipe and held it; position 
by pressure applied with a lever worked by the foot. The operator then turns a thiimli piece on the 
pipe, which opens the valve and lets a small stream of water into the inverted can. If it is not per- 
fectly tight, the leak is immediately disclosed by the tine jet of water which passes through it. The 
water, after being used, escapes by a waste pipe iu the tray. One advantage of this method is that 
it shows which class of solderers has done the poor work, whether the seamers or can-makers, and 
the defective cans are returned to them for the leaks to he mended, after which thej' are again tested 
in a similar manner. If any cans are imperfect after coming from the bath, the fault is known to lie 
with the sealers. An improvement is contemplated by arranging the valve to open with the lever 
when the pressure is applied, and thus avoid the movemeut of the hand in turning the thumb piec&. 
The apparatus costs about $15, and is operated by one person. 

On the Maine coast many sardines are put up in mustard and in spices, usually 
with ;i quantity of the best quality of vinegar. While these are considered e(inal to 
the sardines in oil, they are usually sold at a lower price. Iu 181)2, 1.")4,0.j1 cases of 
sardines in mustard were prepared, the value of which was $457,445; and 10,020 cases 
of sardines in spices, worth $32,425, were prepared. 

Nearly every year a small quantity of sardines are put up in tomato sauce, but 
these do not keep very well and the demand for them is small. In 1SS9 the Maine 
canneries prepared 279 cases of them, worth $762. 

The following shows iu detail the sardine output of Maine in 1889 and 1892: 



Description. 



Sardines in oil : 

Quarters 

Halves 

Three-quarters 

Sariliues in mustard: 

Quarters 

Three-quarters 

Sardines in spices: 

Quarters 

Three-quarters 

One pound 

Two pound 

Three jtound 

Odd sizes 

Sardines i u tomato sauce : 

Oue pound 

Two pound 



Total 1,070,105 



Cases. 



201,940 
8,881 
1,025 

4, 127 

158, 069 

1.0G2 

5,009 

74 

10 



36 



256 
23 



Value. 



$1,013,877 
66,716 
4,100 

20, 635 
553, 242 

5,310 

21, 034 
277 

26 



125 



1892. 



Cases. 



300, 428 
6,614 



5,031 
149,020 



Value. 



$1,455,245 
31, 870 



21,582 
435, 863 



543 
6,705 


2.145 
18,011 


730 
1,042 
2,000 


1,643 

:;, 120 

7,500 







1,1)70,985 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY I'UODUCTS F( >R FOOD. 



531 



From Mv. ILiirsiVKrclIciit. rcixnt. uii the '■ rieniii<;- Iinliistry of the PassaiuiKiHoddy 
Region" is cxtrarted tlic following tiimliu- stiiteiueiit, showing the cost per ease of 
(jiiai'ter oil sardines in 1S05, the statement being prepared on u basis of seven eases 
for convenience in manix)ulating some of the items. 

Statement of the cost ^^er case of quarter-oU sardines in 1S95. 



Material: 

Tin plate for 7 cases, at $U.40 per box $3.43 

Decorating 35 sheets of tin ])iato 58 

Oil for 7 cases, at 30 cents jicr gallon 2. 10 

S<jl(ler for 7 cases, at 25 cents per case 1. 75 

Fuel for soldering;, .soldering coppers, and acid... . 21 

Shook sand uails lor 7 cases 53 

Fish, at $3.14 per hogshead 1. 10 

Coal, wood, sawdust, and salt 12 

"Waste of material, 1 per cent 10 

Material for 7 cases 9. 92 

Material for 1 case 1. 42 

Jjabor: 

Cutting, rimming, and heiiding tin 20 

Cutting two-thirds of 1 box of tin on dies 14 

Seaming cans for 7 cases, at 5 cents per case 35 

Making cans for 7 cases, at 12 cents per case 84 

Sealing cans for 7 cases, at 30 cents per case 2. 10 

Cuttmg and flaking lish lor 7 cases, at 10 cents 

per case 70 

Packing? cases, at 10 cents per case 70 

Making 7 cases, at 1 cent per case 07 

General labor on 7 cases, at IS cents per case 1. 26 



J^o6 or— Continued. 
Trucking 7 cases, at 1 cent per case 07 

Labor for 7 cases 6. 43 

Labor for 1 case 02 

Expenses of sldpping and selling: 

Freight on 7 cases, at 10 cents per case 70 

Commission on 7 cases, at 5 per cent 87 

Discount i)f I per cent for cash i)ayment 17 

Fire and mariuo insurance '. 06 

Expenses on 7 cases l. 80 

Expenses on 1 case 25 

Total cost of 7 cases 18. 15 

Total cost of 1 case 2.59 

Su7iimary of the cost 2)er case: 

Material i. 42 

Labop 92 

Cost at cannery 2. 34 

Expenses of shipping and selling 25 

Total cost per case 2. 59 



Mr. Hall further states: 

An estimate similar to the above, made in 1S86, showed the cost of quarter-oils at that time to be 
$4 per case at the factory. The material then cost $2.S3and the labor $1.17, whereas the mat<^,rial now 
costs $1.42 and the labor 92 cents, a total of $2.34 per case. The cost per case Avas therefore $1.6(j or 
41^ percent less in 1895 than in 1886. In the estimate for 18S6the tish were reckoned at $6 per hogshead, 
but tlie average for that year was abont $9; hence it is probable that theactnal ditlerence in the cost 
of production was even greater than these tignres show. It will be noticed that the reduction in cost 
since 1886 has bia-n more largely in material than in labor, the cost of material in 189,") l>eiDg nearly 
50 per cent less than in 1886, while that of labor was only 2H per cent less. Of the total ditterence, 85 
per cent is in material and 15 per cent in labor. Prior to 1886 the cost of mannfacturiug sardines 
was somewhat greater than it has been at anj' time since, but it was probably never more than about 
$7 per case. The price of the products has therefore fallen much more rapidly than the cost of pro- 
duction, and conse(]uently the profits have been constantly diminishing. It was not until after 1880 
that the cheapening of the cost of the products became an imperative necessity. 

In the strong competition between the various manufacturers the quality of the goods has in a 
measure l)ecn sacriiiccd to the interest of producing large quantities. When the industry was first 
cstablishe<l, it was the atnbition of the packers to make the quality of the domestic product equal, if 
possible, to that of the sardines imported from France and other countries, and thus secure at least a 
part of the trade which was then wholly supplied by the foreign manufacturers. It was also hoped 
that when the supply should exceed the demand of the home market thi^ surplus stock might be 
exported. To this end, therefore, the best (luality of material was used, and the greatest care was 
exercised in the methods of i)reparat ion, and for a few years the (piality of sardiues put up at Eastport, 
while somewhat inferior to the best, was equal to that of the average brands imported. Had these 
ehbrts been continued until the present time, it seems not improbable that a still higher standard 
of excellence would have been attained. Attention was, however, soon directed toward reducing the 
cost of the jiroducts. One of the most important changes made was that of substituting cotton-seed 
and nut oils of various kinds for olive oil. This practice began to some extent before 1880, but 
did not become general until after that date. The cheaper oils were first introduced for i'rying the 
fish, but in a short time they were also used for packing them in the cans. Changes have also been 
made, iu the methods of preiiaring sardines in order to render the performance of the work more rapid 
and thus increase the capacity of the canneries at a reduced ratio of cost. 



532 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

There appears to be some doubt in the minds of the packers whether or not the herring (Cliipea 
haniigun) which is used for sardines on the coast of Maine is susceptible of being so jirepared that it 
will lie eiiual in quality to the best imported sardines. It may be ciuite safely asserted that the 
character of this species does not oll'cr any insurmountable barrier. The sardine ( Clnpanodon pUcliardiis) 
used in France, which is the young of the pilchard, the English sprat (Clupea sprattiis), and the Cali- 
fornia sardine (Cliipanodci cwntleHu) all belong to the same family of lishes as the herring, and it is 
probable that auy superiority which one m.ay have over another, when packed in oil, depends more 
on the (juality of the oil and the method of treatment than on the natural characteristics of the species. 
That the experiment is a hopeful one as to its effect on prices is indicated by the fact that in 1895 
considerable quantities of goods were so improved iu quality that they were sold for at least 50 cents 
more per case than the best average brands. This improvement consisted mainly in frying the fish and 
in the exercise of greater care in their preparation. There i< no doubt that their value might have been 
still further enhanced by the use of either olive oil or olive oil Mended withotlieroilsof a delii ate flavor. 

For further information regarding the prei>aration of sardines in Maine, and tht) 
present condition of that industry reference is made to Mr. Hall's above-mentioned 
report (The Herring Industry of the Passamaquoddy llegion, Maine, by Ansley Hall, 
United States Fish Commission Report for 189G, pp. 4^3-487). 

SARDINES ON THE PACIFIC COAST. 

Within the past few years sardines of choice (jnality have been prepared at San 
Pedro, Gal. The following account of the species utilized aud of the industry is from 
a recent report (Bulletin for 1894, pp. 227-230) of the United States l-'isli Coniniissiou: 

The California sardine {Clupea sagax) is very closely related to the sardine of Europe (C 
pilchardim), from which it chiefly differs in having no teeth and less strongly serrated scales on tlir 
bellv. It attains a length of nearly a foot. It is found along the entire Pacific const of the llnitei! 
States. The fish is, however, most constant iu .appearance and most abundant on tlie southern pail 
of the coast, and it is doubtful if it exi-sts in suftieient numbers to maintain a regular fishery north o( 
San Francisco. Even at that place the supply is uncertain. While there have been periods of years 
in which the sardines were found in San Francisco Pay in large quantities, and for a considerable 
time in each season, for the past five years they have been very scarce. 

The distribution of the anchovy {Stolephorus ringens) is similar to that of the sardine. It occurs 
in abundance along the entire coast, and is often found iu enormous quantities in Puget Sound, San 
Francisco Bay, and elsewhere. It reachc^s a maximum size of about 7 inches. In most places it is 
known as the anchovy, l)ut in Puget Sound, according to Swan, it is called "sardiM<'." 

The natural advantages which the west coast possesses for (he canning of sardines and other 
similar fish are unMsu.ally good, and are superior iu some respects to those of the east coast. At least 
the two fi.shes named, the sardine and the anchovy, suitable for canning as "sardines," occur in large 
quantities, the first named very closely resembling and being an excellent substitute for the sardine 
of southern Europe. The dry atmosphere and other climatic conditions of the southern coast of 
California are very favorable for the preparation of a good grade of canned fish. The culture of the 
olive supplies a native oil of superior iinality, which is essential in the canning of the best goods. 
Another item of importance to cauners in this connection is the abundance of cheajj labor. The chief 
desideratum in the establishment of a factory for the canning of sardines (and other similar species) 
is a regular supply of fish during a certain period. This is thought to be of greater importance than 
an abundance of fish at uncertain or irregular intervals. 

While the sardine ranges along the whole western coast of the United States, and is at times 
very abundant even as far north as Puget Sound, it is doubtful if iu Washington or Oregon a supply 
sufficiently large and regular exists to warrant the machinery, etc. This nuitter has already received 
the consideration of some salmon cauners; but tlie general canning of sardines by salmon jiackers is 
not anticipated as long as the supply of salmon lasts. 

Personal observation and inquiry, the testiuumy of fishermen and dealers, and the studies of 
ichthvolo^ists nrtord ground for the belief that the successful operation of a sardine cannery can not 
be expected any farther north than .San Francisco, and the history of the industry at that place seems 
to indicate that the northern Hunt of satisfactory work is even farther south. South of San Francisco, 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOE FOOD. 533 

^tbe prospects of jnolitnlilo Imsiiipss appear to bo iu direct relation to the latitude; the more sontherii 
the location of the cannery the more constant and abundant the supply of fish. 

In 1889, a canniui; factory was est.ablishcil in .San Francisco which continued in operation until 
August, 1811.3. During the live years in which the cannery was run the yearly pack was from ."),000 to 
15,000 cases. The canned lish consisted chlelly of anchovies in oil iu i-pound cans and large sardines 
iu 1-ponud and 2-pounil round cans. The fish consumed at the factory were caught in San Francisco 
I5ay with haul seines. In the earlier years sardines small enough for use in i|narter-pouud cans were 
obtained, but during the last two years of the cannery's existence no sardines of size suitable for 
"quarter oils" eonld bo had. This was the chief reason for closing the works. 

In this region sardines are found throughout the year. They "show" at the surface at times, 
and thns permit the use of the purse seines. They sometimes go in immense schools. Single hauls of 
several tons are often made, and 10 tons have on several occasions been taken at a single set of the 
seinSj such a catch being obtained about May 1, 1894. In December, 1893, several very large bodies 
of sardines were observed, and a haul of 10 tons of small-sized fish was taken. From .Jann.iry to .June 
the fish appear to gradually increase in numbers. Some schools are made up of fi.sh of uniform size, 
■while in others they are mi.xed. The smallest fish caught are 4 inches long, the largest 12 inches, the 
averag<i 7 inches. 

The condition of the fish in regard to fatness varies cousideral)ly with the season. Mr. J. H. 
Laphain, the president of the lish company operating the cannery, states that iu Deicmber. 1893, 
when tlie canning began, the smaller fisli were poor, while the larger ones were fat. In January and 
February conditions were about the same. In March the smaller fi.sh began to imiiro\ e, continued to 
grow fatter through .\pril aud May, and in .June sardines in excellent condition, suitable for ''iiuaiter 
oils," were taken. In May 4 or 5 tons of large fish that were poor were seined on one occasion. The 
factory is under the superintendence of an exiierienced fish-eanner from Maine. It is a large two- 
story structun^, with a. salting house attached The plant is worth about $10,000. 

The principal ])rocesses to which sardines are subjected before emerging as the canned product 
are as follows: When the fish are unloaded from the vessel they are received into a large, airy room, 
where the cutting and washing are done, aud then transferred to the second floor by means of an ele- 
vator. There they are next arranged on latticed trays (32 inches square) and dried. If the weather 
is fair and the atmosphere- dry, the drying is done in the open air, occupying. ,as a rule, about 2i hours. 
On rainy days, or when tha air is especially linmiil, drying is accomplished insiele the building by 
means of steam, which re<inires about 10 hours. 

After drying, the fish are jdaced in wire baskets (22 inches long, 18 inches wide, 3 inches deep) 
and innuerscd in boiling oil for 2 to fi minutes, depending on their size. The oil is contained in a 
shallow sink, into which the wire baskets fit aud are lowered and raised by means of long wire handles. 
The boiling of tlie oil is done by means of a steam pipe entering at the side and running under the 
sink. After draining and thoroughly cooling, the fish go to the packers, thence to the sealers, thence 
to the batbmen, and, after cooling and testing for leaks, to the boxing ro(nu. 

The cutting of the lish is done by men and girls, the average number of whom employed is 25. 
They are paid by the l)asket or the bucket of cut fish, and by working steadily earn about 25 ceut.s an 
hiuir. The flakcrs number 12 to 14, and are the same girls who pack the fish in the cans. Ten men 
act as sealers and can-makers, and 10 others are employed in the remaining branches of the work. 

The sizes and grades of canned sardines placed on the market from this cannery, and the whole- 
sale prices received, are as follows: (Quarter oils, 100 cans to a case, $6. .50 to $8.50 ]ier case, according 
to the quality of the oil; half oils, 50 cans to a case, $D.bO per case; 2-pound oval cans, with mustard 
spices, aud tomato sauce, $2.25 i)er dozen cans. 

MENHADEN AS SARDINES. 

Someyears prior to the estahlishiiicut of the Maine sardine industry the extensive 
market iu the United States lor sardines led to numerous attempts to obtain an article 
that would compete with the foreign product. Among other species the immature 
menhaden was tried with considerable success. The American Sardine Company pre- 
pared this species quite extensively from 1872 until the development of tlie sardine 
industry at Eastiiort. In 1871 the comitany located a iactory near Port Monmouth, 
N. J., and for nearly a year experimented with various processes with a view to reniov- 



534 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

ing or softening the nutnerons bones in the menhaden ■without the use of vinegar or 
other acids. They adopted a process, described in Letters Patent No. 127115, dated 
May 21, 1872, which consisted in successive steaming, combined with an intervening 
cooling, which softened the bones so that they might be eaten without inconvenience. 

Tlieir treatment of the iish was as follows: Wlien landed, which must be very 
soon after they are removed from the water, the fish are cleaned, scaled, and dressed, 
and slightly salted in hogsheads. After remaining in salt a few hours, dejiending on 
the temperature and the size of the fish, they are i)laced in cooking cans, which are 
a little larger than the market cans, and put in a steam chest, where they are sub- 
jected to a temperature of 220° F., or thereabouts, for 2 or 3 hours. On removal they 
are placed on tables to cool and drain for 5 or G hours, when they are packed in tin 
cans suitable for market, and the cans are then filled with oil, after which the covers 
are soldered on. The cans and their contents are heated in a steam chest for a length 
of time depending on the size of the fish, then vented, when the cans are ready for 
labeling and boxing. 

In 1873 the American Sardine Company prepared about 30,000 dozen cans in the 
manner above described, and several other factories were also engaged in this business 
in the same locality.* During the last fifteen years, however, menhaden have not 
been used for the preiiaration of sardines in this country, herring having been found 
much more suitable for this i^urpose. 

FOREIGN SARDINES. 

The importation of sardines into this country was begun about 1830. By 1858 it 
had reached a value of $250,000 annually, and from that year to 1898 it aggregated 
$29,807,457. The great bulk of these came from France, with much smaller quantities 
fi'om Portugal, England, and Noiway. 

The general method of preparing these fish in France is as follows: On arrival of 
the fish at the factory they are placed on tables or platforms and lightly sprinkled with 
salt, just enough salt being used to prevent the fish from becoming slimy. The heads, 
tails, and intestines are removed, and the fish are immersed in weak brine for IJ to 2 
hours, when they are thrown into small baskets and rinsed in clear water. Next they 
are placed on small gridirons, and again rinsed and laid aside to dry. The drying is 
best done in the open air, but when the weather prevents it is done in a specially 
prepared oven. As soon as sufticiently dry the fish are cooked in oil and then packed 
with olive oil in tin boxes and cooked and vented, as in case of the Maine sardines. 

In France sardines in oil are sometimes mixed with truffles. They are also pre- 
pared with tomatoes and sent in small quantities to the New York market, but the 
chief export in this form is to Mexico. Sardines preserved in butter are quite good, 
but the butter is generally of inferior quality, and it is necessary to remove it before 
serving the sardines, and the box must be heated to melt the butter, so that each fish 
may be removed entire. Sardines preserved in vinegar require to be washed before 
■ serving. The adilition of oil renders the fish more palatable, though tlie sardine 
retains the taste of the vinegar and its flavor is partly destroyed. 

Boneless sardines (put up at Concarneau and Davorneney, France) are quite 
popular in the United States markets, but they are not prepared in this country. 
T\ib method of preparing them is only a slight modification of the general i)rocess. 
When the sardines are about half dried in the sim (if dried in an oven they can be 



Koport of II. S. Fish ('oiiiiiiissiiin, 1X77, pp. 137-138. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 535 

boned only with difficulty and loss), the backbone is broken with a pair of pincers 
near the root of tlie tail; then by evenly and tightly squeezing it with the fingers it is 
loosened along the entire lengtli. By this manipulation the whole bone system is 
loosened, and, commencing at the neck, by the use of a pair of pincers the backbone 
and the connecting bones can be readily removed. 

The present unsatisfactory condition of the Maine sardine industry suggests the 
advisability of |)reparing the flsh after the manner of the Norwegian smoked sardines. 
The fish used in Norway is the sprat (Clupea spraftHs), which is very much like the 
small Maine herring (Glupea luirengus) ; but among the sprat the seines catch many 
herring (Claped. harcii(/i(s), which are treated in the same manner as the sprat. The 
industry is prosecuted along the southern and southwestern coasts of Norway and is 
centered at dtavanger. Wlien the Norwegians began canning these small fish they 
copied the French methods and put u]) a product somewhat like the Maine sardine on 
the market at the present time. But the fish lacked the delicate flavor necessary for 
competition in Europe with the products of France and Portugal, and in order to cover 
up the herring flavor they tried smoking them. Tlie quality of the article proved 
exceedingly satisfactory, and the output now amounts to several hundred thousand 
cases annually. The method of preparation is as follows: 

The fi'e.sh fish, as soon as practicable aftei' capture, are put into strong brine for 
4 or .5 hours, and then strung on a small iron rod, drained and dried in the open air. 
They are next i)laced in the smokehouse, where they are dried for a few minutes by 
liglitly warmed smoke, the temperature not exceeding 100'^ F. Then the fires are 
increased and the flsh are hot-smoked, being cooked without breaking the skins, so 
as ti) hold all the juices. The completion of the smoking is determined by pressing 
the flesh of the fish, which should separate into flakes. The cutters then remove the 
heads and tails and pass the fish to the packers. The latter assort and put them 
in the cans with olive oil, after which the cans are soldered. In steaming, a large 
number of sardine cans are placed at one time in the cooking tank, where they 
i-emain from 20 to 30 minutes, and are then removed and the air-hole soldered. They 
are next again steamed for a few minutes, cleaned and labeled. Before selling, the 
cans must remain for 2 or 3 months in storage, so that the oil may have sufficient time 
to penetrate through the flesh. 

As a result of his investigations into the French methods of preparing sardines 
in oil and his subse(iuent experience with the preservation of pilchards in Cornwall, 
Mr. G. K. Fryer, inspector of fisheries for England and Wales, makes the following 
suggestions for the preparation of sprats {Clupea .sprattii.s), which in many particulars 
resemble the small herring of Maine: 

The fish Khoiilil be landed in as fresh a state as possible, spread on the floor, and sprinkled with 
salt. They should then, without delay, be beheaded and gutted (all bruised fish being rejected), 
thoroughly washed, and immediately placed carefully in v.ats, with a thin layer of coarse British salt 
between each layer of lish. Here they should remain for 1 or 2 hours, after which they should be 
taken out. ai^ain washed, and ranged in specially prepared wire baskets (grilles) to dry. 

One great object to be aimed at is to handle the fish as little as possible, and to pass them through 
the prelinunarj' stages with all speed. With this object the baskets into which the fish are thrown 
by the "gutter" should lie of a size to be easily handled, and should be ciinstructcd of open wicker- 
work, so that the fish in them can be efl'ectually washed by merely plunging the baskets into nu open 
tank plentifully supplied with fresh water. The wire drying baskets are so contrived that the fish 
will not need to be touched by the hand again after they are once pl.aced in them till they are ready 
to be packed in the tins. As the wire receptacles are filled with fish they are ranged in Ihe sun, or 



536 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES PISH COMMISSION. 

under shelter in a dry atmosplien^ in wet weather, and in a free current ol' air, till the fish are thor- 
oughly dry. The (jrlUe is then taken to the cooking stove. This consists of a sericvs of shallow jians 
(each lai'go enough to hold a grille full of fish) containing boiling olive oil, in which the iish are 
cooked. This will take from 2 to 3 minutes, according to the size. 

After standing a uiiuute or two, to allow the saperlluous oil to drain oft", the yrille is hung up to 
cool, when the Iish are ready to be tinned. In the bottom of the tin a piece of bay leaf aud a clove 
head or allspice (pimento) seed arc placed, 2 or 3 hands being specially told oft' to prepai'e the tins 
and pass them ou to the packers, who carefully but firmly place the fish in the tins in layers, 
with their tails right aud left alternately. The tins are next passed to the oil fillers, who fill them 
up with cold olive oil. After standiug sufficiently long to enable the oil to settle down into all the 
interstices, aud filling up, if necessary, the tins reach the hands of the tinmen orsolderers, who fasten 
down the lids. This operation requires the greatest care, and is the only one (except the analogous 
one of making the boxes) which calls for the services of skilled workmen. AH the other operations 
of working and packing, etc., require neatness and dispatch, but need no technical skill; but the 
smallest air-hole left by the solderer in the joint of a tin will spoil it. 

After closing down, the tins are collected in a crate and lowered in a large boiler, where they are 
kept boiliug for 2 or 3 hours, according to size. This operation serves a triple purpose — it completely 
cooks and softens the fish, it expels any remaining air from the tins, and it proves whether or not 
they are hermetically sealed. Ou emerging from the boiler, all the tins are bulged, but a." they 
cool they naturally contract, the toji aud bottom of the tin becoming slightly concave. Any (ins, 
however, which have been imperfectly soldered remain bulged and are spoiled. A rub in sawdust 
will cleanse the tius, when cool, .and they then are ticketed (unless made of decorated tin ]datet aud 
packed in wooden cases ready for the market. 

Having thus described in general outline tlie method of preserving fish in tins a la sardine, I may 
perhaps usefully refer to two points of detail which it would bo well to observe in the arrangement of 
any factory established for its adoption. 

The buildings should be so arranged that the fish can find their way directly from the hands of 
those who perform one stage in the process into the hands of those who complete the next stage. 
When necessary, an arrangemeut of flues from the cooking range aud boiler (and oven from the solder- 
in" room) may be made to utilize the waste heat to assist the drying process. The tables on which 
the iirUles are allowed to drain after cooking, and those at which the operation of "oiling" the boxes 
is carried on, should be covered with tin plate aud fitt((d with gutters aud collectors for saving waste 
oil, which is marketable. The oil should be stored ou the floor above and conveyed to the "oiling" 
tables through a series of pipes with taps, so that tin' supply may be under immidiate control. Only 
olive oil of the best quality should be iised. Oil of a second quality may be used for working 
purposes. (Hive oil adulterated with cotton-seed oil, or even the latter alone, is often used in 
preparing French ''sardines,'' but for the best brands the best olive oil only is employed. This is 
the most costly item in the wliole process of manufacture. In cooking the fish, care should be taken 
to renew the oil before it becomes thick (U- discolored. 

For soldering the tins the only special apparatus required consists of an ingenious but simple 
turn-table revolving on a pivot and furnished at the top with a "cage," into which the tin fits closely 
while the top is being soldered. A footplate at the bottom enables the workman to rotate the table 
at will while, with the soldering iron in one hand and a thin stick of solder in the other, he rapidly 
closes the ".joint" between the body of the box and the lid. As already st.ated, this operation is the 
crucial one in the whole jirocess of preparation. In order to keej) a check on ditt'erent workmanship, 
it is usual to pay the tinmen so mueh for every 100 boxes "made" and "soldered down," and to 
deduct so much for every tin that remains bulged after boiling. As a means of idcntilicatiou, each 
workman marks the tins he makes .aud the lids he solders down with a special mark, and it is easy for 
the foreman, when examining aud counting the tius, to check the number turned out by each work- 
man and to trace to its author every flaw that leads to the rejection of a tin. 

Other methods of making and closing tius are being introduced, aud in this and various other 
details the process of preparing fish a la sardine is open to modification. The system above described, 
however, is that commonly adopted in France, and was successfully applied by me to the preparation 
of pilchards in Coru wall. In some French sardine factories the fish are baked in hot ovens, instead 
of bein" boiled iu oil. Occasion.illy, again, the fish, whether baked or boiled in oil, are soldered down 
as soon as packed, without the addition of oil iu the tins. Sometimes the fish are not subjected to any 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 537 

preliminary cookini;, but aro packed as soon as dry and thoronjjbly cookeil by prolonging; fbi> opera- 
tion of boiling in tbo tins. How far sprats can bo treated in tliis and other varions ways inn only be 
detornilucd by aotnal experience. The exact length of time dnring which thoy mnst lie snbjected to 
the several operations of salting, cooking, and boiling, and the proper proportions of spice, etc., 
■nill dc'pend on the size of (he lish, the size of the tins in whiidi they are paekcil, and other considera- 
tions which mnst also bo determined by iMrefnl experiment. That sprats can, however, be preserved 
in tins (I Ja sardine is jirovcd by the fact that at least one factory of the kind already exists on the 
sontheast coast of England, and a ready nnirket can no donbt be found for a largely increased supply 
abroad, if not at home, and more jjarticnlarly in India and in our southern colonics, where suj)plios of 
fish are scarce. But owing to the shortness of thos]>rat season no curing establishment could probably 
aft'ord to be dependent solely on the supplies of this one fish. During a great part of the year the 
tinmen would no doubt find continuous employment in making the tins in anticipation of the curing 
season; but it would be found economical to keep the other hands at work in the tinning of other 
kinds offish in their season. In Scotland, herrings, hake (in slices), cod, ling, and other kinds offish 
besides crabs and lobsters, would no doubt readily lend them.selves to modifications of the mode of 
cnre above described. The tinning of vegetables .also .serves in Cornwall and in France to keep the 
works going at times when lish an^ scarce. 

Considerahl<> f|nantities of young herrings are, I believe, taken at certain times in the garvie or 
sprat nets. Tliis admixture of the two species has the etVcct of reducing the value of tlie catch under 
ordinary circunistauccs, but there is every probability that young lierrings would make :i. valuable 
article of food if pn'served <i /« sardine; and as each fish has to b(^ individu.illy handled in the process 
of cure it would jjrobably not be difticnlt to distinguish the herrings from the sprats and ''tin" them 
separately. On the other hand, it could be easily ascertained by experiment wliether for the ])Mrpose 
of preparation in tins any such separation would be neiessary. 

It will be understood that there are various circumstances under which the application to .siirats 
of the French system of preserving sardines must be attended with disadvantage. In the first place, 
the sariline season in France is in the summer months, when the fish can be readily dried without 
artificial heat. In Cornwall the pilchard harvest takes place later than that of sardines in France, 
and toward the end of the season the occurrence of rainy or damp weather is a groat drawback. 
The sprat season is later than either, and the provision of artificial means of drying the fish will 
become more necessary. On the other hand, the heat of a French or Cornish summer is a disadvan- 
tage as compared with the comparative coolness of the weather at the time of the sprat harvest 
while the sprat has the ailditlonal point in its favor that it is less delicate, and will stand earriao^e 
an<l handling hotter than tln^ sardine. The binies of the sprat, however, are much harder than those 
of the small immature s.ardines generally preserved in France. The bones of I he i)ilchard (which is an 
adult sardine) are much harder than those of its French r(dative, and those of the sprat are ]irobably 
harder still. This is one of several points which must be taken into consideration in any proposal to 
place tinned sprats into comiietition with tinned sardines. The greater cheapness of sprats will, no 
doubt, be a qnestimi of some imi>ortance in determining the i,ssne of such competition. (I-^ifth Report 
of Fishery Board for Scotland, pp. 218-221.) 

CANNING EELS. 

At several of the canneries on the Athmtic coast small quantities of eels are 
prepared each year. The extent of this branch of the canning trade has been limited 
on ac(!0unt of the small demand for the product and the scarcity of eels in those 
localities in which the process has been tried. For this purpose the salt water eels 
from the Gulf of Maine are used and especially those from Washington County, Me., 
and Barnstable County, Mass., and small or medium sized ones are selected. After the 
head, skin, and viscera are removed, the eels are cut in suitable lengths and placed on 
wire trays and cooked in a steam retort, or, in some cases, fried in au oven for 20 
or 30 minutes. They are next placed in cans, either plain with a small amount of 
jellies to hold them firmly together or with a sauce made of vinegar and s])ices. The 
cans are eitlicr tall round, large oval, or similar in shape to those in which saidines 
are packed. Canned eels are iJiepnieil principally at Eastport and Camden, Me., and 



53.S I'.ULLKTIX OK THE UNITED STATES FISH fOMMISSION. 

New York City. With a cannery located on some portion of the United States coast 
where eels are abundant and the demand for other purposes limited, as at the mouths 
of some of the rivers emptying into the Chesapeake Bay, it seems probable that an 
important and profitable business could easily be developed. 

There is a small output in New York City of smoked eels in cans. These fish are 
eviscerated ami smoked in the usual manner, with head and skin on (see i)age 504), 
after which they are cut into 6 or 8 inch lengths, or sliglitly less than the height of 
the can, and these pieces placed close together in the cans, the interstices being filled 
with diluted cotton-seed oil suitably flavored with vinegar, cloves, etc. 

MISCELLANEOUS CANNING. 
HERRING. 

Owing to the scarcity of mackerel on the United States coast, and the consequent 
high cost of canned mackerel, herring are frecpiently used as a substitute therelor, it 
going on the market under the brand of " herring mackerel," "blueback niackerel," etc. 
The method of preparation differs in no particular from that applied to the mackerel. 
The principal factories for their preparation are on the Maine coast, and the product 
amounts to about 20,000 cases annually. Herring are also put up in spices, in 
mustard sauce, and in tomato sauce, the output approximating 12,000 cases annually, 
and the process of canning is substantially the same as that applied to mackerel. 
These tish are usually branded "brook trout." 

MENHADEN. 

At several canneries on the Maine coast menhaden have been canned and placed 
on the market in 1-pound cans as "ocean trout," "herring mafkerel," "l)lueback mack- 
erel," etc., and have met with ready sale at about 05 cents per dozen cans. In 1889 
378,272 cans of menhaden were prepared in Maine, but since then these fish have been 
so scarce on that coast that comparatively few are canned. 

SMELT. 

The canning of smelt was first begun late in the fall of 1879 in Boston. They 
were thoroughly cooked in butter and i)ackcd in 1-ponnd cans, 5 dozen cans in a case.* 
This business has been abandoned, and at the present time no smelt are canned in 
this country. In 1885, when the jiack of oil sardines was smaller than usual, owing 
to the scarcity of small tisli suitable for quarter cans, experiments were made in the 
canning of smelt as a substitute for herring in the manufacture of sardines, but they 
were found to be dry and hard, and deficient in flavor, and ett'orts in this line were 
soon discontinued.! 

SMOKED STURGEON. 

In the canning of smoked sturgeon the fresh fish are cut into ])ieces adapted to 
the size of the can for which they are intended and placed in a wire drum, the cross- 
section of which is equal to the cross-section of the can. Tliis drum is so arranged 
that one side or head enters the receptacle, and by means of a spring or clasp is 
pressed into the drum, thus slightly compressing the contents. While it is subjected 
to the action of the smoke, and as the fish becomes more and more compact, the 
movable head will gradually press it against the fixed head, so that the contents 
take the shape of a disk with comparatively flat sides. The drum is so suspended 



* Fishery IndustiiiN of ITnited States, sec. ii, p. lOS. t Hull. V. S. Fish Commission, 1887, p. 179. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. f>39 

that it maybe turned or rotated from time to time, so that the jiiiee that settles to the 
bottom is brought to the t()[) and comi)elled to How tlirongh tlie mass again, tlius 
retaining it in the ilesh. On eompletiou of tlie smoking the disks of fish are removed 
from the drum and iilaced in cans with a small quantity of cotton seed oil, and the 
cans are hermetically sealed. On account of the scarcity and the consequent high 
priceof sturgeon during recent years, comjiaratively small quantities are canned. The 
product is very palatable and will keep for a year or two under favorable conditions. 

HALIBUT. 

The generally brisk demand for fresh and smoked halibut has prevented many 
attempts in New England to preserve them by canning. On the Pacific coast, both 
in Alaska and in the State of Washington, and at Klawak, Prince of Wales Island, 
fresh lialibnt liav(> been canned, but in no great quantities. There is no doubt but 
that the tish is suitable to be thus preserved. 

SPANISH MACKEREL. 

In 1879 the owner of an oyster and clam cannery at Ocracoke Inlet, North Car- 
olina, i)urchased small quantities of Spanish mackerel and put up a few hundred 
2pound cans. Shortly afterwards, at the suggestion of Professor Baird, experiments 
were made in canning Spanish mackerel at Cherrystone, Va., to ascertain their relative 
value as compared with other kinds of canned fish. The reports of tlie canneries were 
that they are no better tiian flsh of ordinary grades, and that as a canned fish they 
are inferior to the common mackerel (Scomber scombnis).* 

GEEEN TURTLE. 

The canning of green turtle (Ghehmia mydas) in this country was first begun in 
18()9 on the coast of Texas at the beef packeries located on Aransas Bay. When 
th'.'se canneries were closed, about 10 years afterwards, a small factory was estab 
lished at Fulton, on the same bay, for preparing turtle meat in tin cans for market. 
This cannery was in operation up to 180G, using annually about 1,(»00 turtles, weighing 
;350,0(l(l pounds, and preparing about 40,000 two pound cans of turtle meat and 800 two 
and three-pound cans of "turtle soup." On account of the increasing scarcity of 
green turtle on the Texas coast, the cannery has not been in oj)eration since ISOC. 

Small quantities of green turtle meat are incidentally canned at times at various 
other places. Each cannery uses methods peculiar to itself, so that it is scarcely 
practicable to describe any general method of preparing this product. To prepare 
it so tliat it will keep a suitable length of time, requires close attention and the 
greatest cleanliness. 

GIANT SCALLOPS. 

The Bulletin of the U. S. Fish Commission for 1889 contains the following account 
of experiments in canning the giant scallop {Pecten magellanicun) : 

About 187G the Castine Pai'kiiig Company umlertook to put scallops ou the market in a canned 
condition, as is now so ooninionly done with clams in many localities on the coast of Maine. It is said 
that the company was nnable to properly preserve the thick, solid meats, and the effort was abortive. 
Six years ago, however, the attempt was renewed and was iu a measure sncc'cssful. It was found 
that by previously frying the meats tliey could be canned without dilliculty, but the metbod was 
considered too costly and was not put to much practical use.t 



■ i;.e|«>rt U.S. Fish Conuuissinu, 1880, p. -1 14; 18H1, pp. 221-227. 
t liuUetiu of the U. S. Fisli Couiiuissiou for 18S!), p. 320. 



540 



BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 



CODFISH BALLS, ETC. 

In 1S78 tlie preparation of codflsh balls was begun by a Boston canner. This 
prodnct consi.sts of codfish and potatoes cooked with beef tallow, with the addition 
of a small quantity of saltpeter, the whole being hermetically sealed in tin cans. The 
usual method of preparation is as follows : For 100 pounds of salt codfish, 12.5 jxiunds of 
potatoes, 10 pounds of raw onions, and 13 pounds of pure beef tallow are reiinired The 
fish are soaked in teiiid water to remove the salt and then reduced to a i)ulp; the pota- 
toes are boiled, skinned, and mashed; and these ingredients are warmed and mixed 
thoroughly with the chopped raw onions and beef tallow, adding pounds of saltpeter 
and ounces of pepper or other suitable flavoring coudimeuts. While the ingredients 
are being mixed they are chopped as fine as practicable by machinery. The warm 
mixture is then placed in 1,2, or 3 pound tin cans and sealed. The cans and contents 
are boiled at a very high temperature for 2 or 3 hours. On cooling and labeling the 
product is ready for market. In 1870, 11,000 cases, etjuivalent to 204,000 two-pound 
cans, were prepared by Boston canners, the value of which was $38,500. The present 
annual output is somewhat less, owing to the increased popularity of boneless codflsh. 

Among numerous other fishery products preserved in cans are clam chowder, fish 
chowder, Ilnnau haddie, smoked lake front, smoked pike, smoked carp, caviar, etc. 

The following summary shows some of the varieties of canned fishery products 
on the New York market and the average wholesale price in 1898 : 



Designation. 


Price 

per 
dozen. 


Designation. 


Price 

per 

dozen. 

$2.70 
1.70 
3.15 
2.20 
3.45 

1.15 
.70 
1.10 
1.05 
.70 
1.30 
2.50 

.80 
1.45 
1.40 
1.15 
1.10 

.90 
1.15 
1.20 

2.00 
3.75 
1.75 

L90 
2.20 
£.00 

Price per 
100 tins. 
$2.85 
3.25 
6.25 
9.00 
4.70 
2.75 
3.00 
5.25 
3.35 
5.20 
3.25 
8.50 




$2.50 

1. 85 
3.15 
5.10 
9.20 
2.10 
H.90 
7.00 

.00 
1.45 
1. 00 
1.90 
1.50 
2.00 

1. :i5 

1.30 
1.75 
2.75 
2. 25 
3.50 
G.50 
1.60 
2.62 
6.25 
2.25 
3.20 
7.50 
3.25 
6.00 
1.05 
1.75 
10.00 
8.00 

.95 
1.10 
1.40 
1.50 
1.40 
2.25 
2.75 
6.00 
10.00 
2.50 


Lobsters : 

One-pound cans, tall 


Caviar: 

UnarttT-iumiid runs 


Half-pound cans, tlat 


One- pun nd cans, flat 




Two-poinul t;ans 

Oue-iiglitli- kilo, cans 


I'iekled, two-pound cans . 


MackeFol : 


JIall'-kilo. rans 

Clams : 

l''jisteni, .soft-aholl, onc-poiind cans 

Kasteni, soft shell, 1 wo-pountl cans 

Litlli-rH-ck, liardahell, one-pound cans 

Little-neck, lianl-sln-tl, two-pound cans 


"Herrinii mackerel," one iionud cans 

Sonsed, tliree-quarter- pound cans 




Oysters, standard, two-pound cans 

Pickerel, smoked, one pound cans 

iSaliiion: 

Coluniliia Iliver, half-pound cana, flat 

Columbia Kiver, one pound cans, flat 

Columbia River, one-j)ound cans, tall 

Alaska, red, one-pound cans 

Alaska, medium, one-jiound cans 










Crab meat, two-pimnd cans 




Alaska, sockeye, one-pound can.s, tall 

Alaska, sockc'ye. one pound cans, flat 

SardeU: 




Eels, in jel ly, one pon ml cans 












Stui-p:eon : 


Eels. Hamluirt;, ti\'o-j)o[ind cans 




Eel soni», iinjKHted, two pound cans 




Sardines : 


Finnan liaddie, Srotrli, ..jii- j)ound cana 




Herring : 


















ScoU-t, in tomato sauce, one-pound cans... 


Mustarils,qu;irters, extra large 


Bii^m:irk, Ilirec-pound cans 


Spiced, quarters 

Spiced, three quarters 

In tomato sauce, <piarters 


Kieler sprotten, three-pount'. cana 







PKESEKVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 541 



PREPARATION OF FISH EGGS FOR FOOD. 



The roes or eggs of fish are among the most valuable of the miscellaneous food 
products of the fisheries. The most important are the roes of the sturgeon, mullet, 
herring, shad, whitefish, cod, and haddock. Some of these eggs are sold to the con- 
sumers while fresh, especially the eggs of shad, river herring, whitefish, and haddock. 
In pickling sea herring the roes are usually left in the fish and no special treatment 
is applied to them. The eggs of the sturgeon, mullet, and of a few other si)ecies are 
nearly always removed from tlie fish and separately prei)ared, and it is to the treat- 
ment of these that the i)reseut chapter more particularly relates. Sturgeon eggs are 
salted in brine and sold under the name caviar, the domestic product approximating 
300,000 pounds annually, worth $225,000. Mullet roes are dry-salted or pickled in 
brine ;dl along the United States coast from North Carolina to Fhu'ida, The Indians 
of the Northwest coast dry considerable quantities of roe from various species of fish, 
the product being stored for winter use, when it is pounded between two stones, 
immersed in water, and beaten with wooden spoons into a creamy consistency, or it is 
l)oiled with sorrel and dittereut dried berries and molded in wooden frames into cakes 
about 12 inches square and 1 inch thick. 

CAVIAR. 

Caviar is made from the eggs of sturgeon or similar si)ecies of fish, which are 
suitably salted and held in tight packages in brine. It is the most costly food product 
obtained in the United States fisheries, and while highly relished by many persons, a 
liking for it must usually be acquired. For many years the manufacture of caviar 
was monopolized by the Russians, most of it being prepared on the Volga Elver and 
Casjiian Sea, where large quantities are even now annuallyputup, the trade centering 
at Astrakhan. The product in Kussia amounts to aboixt 8,000,000 pounds annually, 
and it is in great demand in Europe, especially in those countries bordering the eastern 
half of the Mediterranean. 

The abundance of sturgeon in the United States led to the preparation of caviar 
on the Hudson liiver about 1850, and three years later on the Delaware liiver. It 
was pre])ared at Sandusky, Ohio, first in 1855, and soon afterwards its manufacture 
was begun at other points on the Great Lakes and the various rivers on the Atlantic 
coast; in 1885 its preparation extended to the Columbia River on the Pacific coast, and 
subsequently to Lake of the Woods. x\.n acquaintance with its peculiar process of 
manufacture became of considerable value, sums ranging from $100 to $500 being 
frequently paid for instructions in the secret method. At present, on account of the 
high price at which the article sells — from 50 to 00 (sents per pound — every locality in 
Ameiica in which sturgeons abound is vigorously fished, ami on the Delaware River 
female sturgeons with ovaries in suitable condition sell ordinarily for $10 each, and 
as high as $00 worth of i)rodacts has been made from one fish. 



542 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

The best caviar made in tlie Uuited States is from the eggs of the lake sturgeon 
[Avipenser ruMcimdus), these being larger than those of the commou species (A. stiirio). 
Tlie hitter is the sole source of caviar iiroiluced on the Atlantic coast, the short-nosed 
species {A. hrmnrostrix) not being found in sufficient quantities for tliis purpose. The 
lake caviar sold iu 1S9S for about 80 cents per pound, whereas the Delaware product 
sold for GO cents, and the Southern Atlantic for 50 cents per pound. 

The caviar prepared on the Pacifio coast is from the ^1. transmontanus, and sells 
usually for 40 cents per pound. During the jjast three or four years the eggs of 
the shovel-nose sturgeon (A. scaphirhynchnx) have been used to a small extent for 
making caviar, most of this product coming from the Mississippi River, especially in 
the vicinity of Memphis. This caviar is not choice and usually sells for about 30 cents 
l^er pound, or half that of Delaware caviar. 

The increasing scarcity of sturgeon and the high price of caviar have led to many 
attempts at finding a substitute for sturgeon eggs, but so far with very little success. 
The eggs of horseshoe crabs [LimuluH pnlyphenuis) have been used, but they are small, 
and become hard and tasteless when salted. Garfish eggs have also been tried, and 
while of good size, they are without flavor and have a disagreeable and even repulsive 
odor. The most successful substitute yet found is shad eggs, which have been prepared 
iu identically thi; same manner as those of sturgeon and mixed with the latter. The 
resulting product sells for a lower price than caviar made entirely from sturgeou eggs, 
but the decreased value is more than counterbalanced by the increased quantity. 

The product of caviar in the United States amounted in 1898 to about 2,800 kegs 
of 125 to IGO pounds each. Of these, 400 kegs were of the large grain variety from 
the Great Lakes, Lake of the Woods, Lake Winnipeg, etc.: 100 kegs from Columbia 
and Fraser rivers; 200 kegs, of small grain, from the South Atlantic coast, and the 
remaining 2,100 kegs, of the medium-grain variety, Irom the Delaware, south coast 
of Long Island, and other waters of the Middle States. About 500 kegs were consumed 
in this country, the remaining 2,300 being exported to Europe. 

Small (j^uantities of caviar are imported into this country annually, the su])plies 
coming from the Volga and the Elbe. The wholesale price in New York varies from 
80 cents to $4 per pound, depending on the quality of the grain and the extent to 
which it has been salted. The higher-priced varieties ai-e very lightly salted and 
must be kept at a low temperature. 

Thee(iuipmcut for making caviar is simple and inexpensive, consisting, in addition 
to the floats, slaughter-house, etc., necessary for handling sturgeon meat, of several 
sieves with wire meshes, a few large-sized buckets, tubs, and a number of tight kegs 
for holding the product. The first step in the process is to remove the roe from the 
sturgeon, which should be done as soon as practicable after the fish is caught. The 
sturgeon is turned on its back or side, a gash is cut from the neck to the vent, and the 
eggs are removed. Care must be taken to avoid bringing the eggs in contact with fresh 
water, since it softens them and breaks the shells. The quantity of roe removed from 
each fish varies considerably. The Delaware stui-geon yield from 6 to 12 gallons, 
including the investing membranes of the ovaries and the supporting tissues, the latter 
being only a very small i)art of the organ, so that there is but little waste from this 
source. The Columbia River sturgeon yield nearly as much as the Delaware sturgeon, 
but those from the Great Lakes average only 2 or 3 gallons. 

The masses of eggs and membranous tissue are at once ])laccd upon u wire sieve, 
the meshes of which are just large enough for the eggs to pass through as the masses 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 543 

are rubbed back aud foi'th by the workman's hand. A tub, can, or box is placed under 
the sieve to receive the eggs as they pass througli. It is convenient, where uuiuh 
caviar is prepared, to fit the sieve over a zinc-lined trough, about 18 inches deep, 2 feet 
wide, and -4 feet long, with its bottom sloping to one end, where an outlet is arranged. 
As the eggs are gently pressed by the hand and worked back and forth across the 
meshes, they become separated from the membramnis tissue and IVom each other and 
fall into the receptacle, whence they are removed and i)laced in clean half-barrel tubs. 

In the tubs the eggs are at once mixed with a compound of Liineburg salt, 100 
pounds of eggs rei[uiring 13 pounds of Liineburg salt, to which is added 1 pound 
of "preservaliue," a proprietary composition of certain antiseptics, such as boracic 
acid, salicylic acid, etc. The Liineburg salt costs about 84 per cask of 300 pounds, 
and the preservaliue costs about $l'.i per 100 pounds. The preservaliue has been 
in use for about twelve years, and since it gives satisfaction and costs only a 
trifle compared with the value of the caviar, no disposition exists to experiment 
with a substitute. The mixing of the eggs with the salt is accomplished by gently 
stirring the mass by hand for a few minutes. The immediate effect of the salt is to 
cut the slime or glutinous coating from the eggs and to dry the mass, but very 
soon its strong affinity for moisture causes it to extract the watery constituents 
of the eggs, and in 10 or 15 minutes a very copious brine is formed, and upon its 
surface a frothy substance collects. This is skimmed off and the eggs i)laced in 
sieves of a finer mesh, about 8 or 10 pounds of eggs in each sieve. For convenience 
in draining, these sieves may be placed on a sloping plank, with strips nailed on each 
edge to elevate them, or in some houses they are placed over an oi)ening in the floor. 
The draining must be thorough, and requires from 12 to 20 hours. 

The process is now complete and the caviar is at once placed in small, clean oaken 
kegs, which have been thoroughly steamed, with capacity for holding from 125 to 160 
pounds. The kegs cost about |1 each, being made of red or white oak or Norway or 
Oregon pine. The Delaware kegs hold about 125 or 130 pounds, those used on the 
Great Lakes about 100 pounds, and those on the Columbia liiver about 145 or 150 
pounds. The kegs when filled with caviar should be kept in a cool but not freezing 
temperature and be allowed to stand for a considerable time, in order that the gas 
may escape. During this time the caviar settles several inches and the keg should 
be again filled before being headed up. 

Exijerience is essential to the preparation of a high gTade of caviar, as the extent 
of the salting, draining, etc., depends on the condition of the eggs, the temperature, 
and the state of the weather. It is usually customary to keep light and dark varieties 
of roe separate, since mixing the two gives a speckled appearance to the product. In 
storage the caviar should be held at a low temperature, 38^ to 40^ F. being found most 
satisfactory, and under favorable conditions it may be kept for several years. 

The principal market for caviar in kegs is New York City. There are numerous 
buyers at various fishery points on the coast and in the interior, who collect the ontput 
of the smaller manufacturers ami ship it to New York dealers, who export the greatei- 
part of it to (iermany. Occasionally a manufacturer on the Delaware may shi^) his 
product to Germany direct, but more frequently it passes through the hands of New 
York dealers. 

Caviar is packed in kegs for tlie wholesale inarlvct, and is never handled in any 
other tbrm of package by the original ])riidncer, but a keg holding more than a cus- 
tomer usually desires, the large ilcalcis prepare it in hermeLically sealed tin cans for 



544 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

retail trade. When prepared in this manner it is sometimes subjected to a process 
difiereiit from that employed for packing it in kegs. 

In 187.5 Max Ams, an extensive dealer in fishery products in New York, devised 
and patented* a process, which is as follows: 

After tlie eggs have boeu aieved and salted in the usual manner, except that preservaliue is not 
generally used, they are placed in tin cans, which are immediately soldered and then exposed to water 
iu a gentle heat, which is very gradually increased to not less than 140^ nor more than 200^^ F. The 
can is tlien vented and immediately reclosed to retain the caviar in an air-tight pacliage. Hy this 
process the! salt mixed with theeggs will lie combined with theextraneous matter sufficiently to protect 
it against decomposition and to constitute a protective covering for the eggs. If the temperature lie 
less than 110 , tliis etfect would not be obtained and decomposition would probably ensue; and if the 
heat exceeds 200^', the essential oils would evaporate and the eggs be left dry, brittle, and tasteless. 

The usual size of cans for the retail trade in this country is rj pound, .\ jKiund, 
1 pound, and 'J |)ounds. The price received for j pound cans is about sjsl.S.j i)er dozen, 
and for l-pouiul cans I.I.IO i>er dozen. Other sizes sell at proportionate rates. 

A very choice product of caviar, which, however, seems to be little known in this 
country, is the freshly salted eggs. The fresh eggs on removal from the fish are at 
once mixed with a small (luaiitity of .salt and .served in that condition within li or 3 
hours. Tiiis makes a delightful dish, quite sajterior to the usual caviar of commerce. 
In order to obtain the article in Moscow and St. Petersburg, the living sturgeon are 
transported from the Volga iu tank cars, so that the eggs may be had perfectly fresh. 

A special method of preparing caviar was patented in this country iu 1851, t which 
docs not appear, however, to have ever been employed to any great extent. This 
process is as follows: 

The roe, being removed from the fish, are sejueezed gently by hand in order to remove the individual 
ova from the membranes by which they are covered. Sjirinkle a small (luantity of fine salt in a clean 
tub and place iu the tub a layer of ova and a layer of salt, to the extent of 100 pounds of roe and about 
5 pounds of salt. When it has remained about 6 liours, pour ("> (piarts of strong brine-pickle over the 
mixture. After 12 hours a like iiuantity of pickle is again poured over. In from SO to !50 hours, 
according to the state of the weather, the ova will rise or float on the pickle, while certain refuse 
matter will settle to the bottom of the tub, the extraneous uiatter being separated from the ova by a 
process similar to fermentation. The ova are then spread about half an inch thick on sheets, and are 
exposed to the air from 20 to 40 hour.s, being turned over iu the sheets in the meantime 4 or ."> times 
a day. When dry, uiix with it about 2 ounces of black pepjier and 3 pints of oil extracted from the 
liver or milt of the male sturgeon, the purpose of the oil being to restore to the roe the sturgeon flavor 
removed by the salting process. Let it stand for 10 or 12 days and then pack in kegs for market. 

RUSSIAN METHODS OF PREPARING CAVIAR. 

Large quantities of caviar are manufactured in Russia, especially in the vicinity 
of the Caspian Sea, not only from the eggs of sturgeon but of various other species. 
Of the sturgeon caviar two kinds are prepared, (I) fresh or grained, and (2) hard or 
pressed caviar; the former is more valuable than the latter, selling at Astrakhatt from 
$21 to $2.5 per pood (30.112 pounds), while pressed caviar sells at $15 to $17 per pood. 
The method of jireparing each kind is as follows :J 

In preparing by either nuthod the roe of the sturgeon is spread on a net stretched on a wooden 
frame and with narrow meslies formiug a sieve. The grains are passed through the meshes by slightly 
pressing the whole mass with the hand till nothing remains on the sieve liut the cellular tissue, the 

* Letters Patent No. 169668, November 9, 1875. t See Letters Patent No.78;B, January 7, 1851. 

t See Notice sur les Pecheries et la Chasse aux Phoques dans la Mer Blanche, TOceau tilacial et la 
Mer Caspienne. Tar Alexandre Schultz, St.-P<;tersbourg, 1873. Also R.apport sur les Expositions 
Internationales de PccUe, par J.-L. Soubeirau. Paris. 1871. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHEUY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 545 

fat, and the muscle, the grains falling into a wooden roceptaclo placed luidcriieath. If grained caviar 
is to he made, the roe is sirinkled with very clean and fine salt, and the wluile mass is stirred with a 
wooden fork having eight or ten prongs. The quantity of salt reqnired varies, according to the 
season, from 6 to 15 pounds per 100 pounds of roe; more salt heing required in warm than in cold 
weather. It is de8iral)le that as little salt lie used as is ahsolutely necessary for preserving the caviar. 
The roe mixed with salt tirst presents the ajipearance of dough when stirred, hut when each grain 
has heen impregnated with salt the whole iliass swells, and in stirring a slight noise is perceptihle like 
that produced by stirring grains of corn. This noise is a sign that the process is completed.' The caviar 
is packed in casks made of linden wood, as this imparts no disagreeahle flavor to the contents. 

For manufacturing pressed caviar a tub half filled with brine is placed under the sieve, the 
strength of the lirine varying with the temperature and the season. To impregnate the grains evenly 
with brine the whole mass is stirred with a wooden fork, always turning it from the same side. This is 
continued for 10 rmuutes in summer and about half that long in winter. Theu the roe is removed 
with line sieves and, after the brine has drained therefrom, it is put in receptacles made of the bark 
of the linden, 3 jioods ( 108 pounds) to each sack, each of which is placed under compression to remove 
all the brine fnun the roe and to transform it to a solid mass, remaining under compression for about 
6 days. During tlie jiressing many grains are crushed and a portion of their contents flows out with 
the brine, tlio loss iu weight amounting to about 3(1 per cent. The pressed caviar is then removed 
from the sacks and packed in casks ccmtaining usually .30 poods (1,080 pounds) each, the inside of 
which is covered with "najikin linen," this being the reason why the caviar is fre([uently called 
cnridi- <T ?rt Sfcric^r (napkin caviar). The finest ipiality of jiresseil caviar, that which has been least 
salti'd and pressed, is jiacked iu straight linen bags of cylindrical shape, and is called caciar a, sac 
(sack caviar). Caviar is also shii)ped in hermetically sealed tin cans. 

Mr. Scluiltz states: 

The fatness of the roe depends on the quality of the tish and the season when it is caught. The 
fattest is that made from the roe of sturgeon caught in the Caspian between .Inly 8 and Au^'ust l.'i. 
This roe is left only a few hours in the brine and theu taken out and packed, without beino' iiresscd 
iu casks holding from 5 to 10 poods (180 to 3()0 pouiuls) each. If the flsh h.as been dead so lono- that 
the roes are somewhat spoiled, the roes and ovaries are jdaced in the brine until they are thoroughly 
impregnated with salt and then jiressed and packed iu large casks containing about 1,000 pounds. 
This is sold at a very low jiriee, from 5 to 8 cents per poiuid, wholesale. 

The choicest ciiviar iu the Russian trade is from the roe of. the bclouga {Acipen- 
ser huso), the eggs being large and of good ap])earance; but for the bulk of caviar the 
roe of the cominou sturgeon ( A.gnhlenstiidtii) and of the sevriouga (.4. sieJUitux) is u.sed. 
Choice caviar is made from the eggs of the steri.ul (A. ruthemts), which, however, does 
not enter into commerce, being used by the fishermen and their neighbors. 

The eggs of the bream (Abramis hrama), of the perch {Lnclopcrca mndra), and 
of the "vobla" or chub [Lcueiscus rutilitu) are also used for making a form of caviar 
which finds a market principally iu Constantinople and Greece. Merchants from 
Greece visit the fishing estaldishments near Astrakhan, purchase the fresh eggs, and 
have the caviar prepared under their own supervision iu a manner cpiite similar to 
the salting of mullet roes iu the United States. The roe bags with the eggs therein 
are carefully removed and mixed with dry salt in bulk. After sufficient salting the mass 
is placed between boards weighted down by heavy stones, and after remaining thus for 
a month is shipped iu casks. In the retail trade it is usually cut into disk-like slices and 
is much sought after in Greece. From 500,000 to 700,000 pounds of the caviar frcim 
perch eggs are prepared every year in Kuban. During recent years the Greek Island- 
ers have prepared large (juantities of roes from the above named species of fish. 

Day states* that the roc of carp (Ci/priiu(.s carpio) is made into caviar by Jews iu 
Italy and Eastern Europe, as by their regulations they may not eat caviar ujade of 
sturgeon, that flsh being destitute of scales. 

"The Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland, by Francis Day, vol. ii, p. 162. 

F.C. B.,1S98— 35 



546 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

The fisherineu of the Dardanelles prepare a kind of cheese lioiu tlie roe of several 
species of fish by dryiiij,^ it iu the air and then pressing it. By dipping it in luelted 
wax, a crust is formed over it which jtrevents its being affected by the air. Inside 
this crust the roe undergoes a sort of fermentation, giving it so piijuant a Havor tliat 
one can eat but little of it at a time. It is said to taste like a mixture of flue sardines, 
caviar, and old cheese. Before it is eaten, the crust of wax is taken off, and if it has 
become moldy, which frequently happens, it is soaked in strong vinegar.* 

In Germany a form of caviar is made from the eggs of the pike, in the following 
manner. The fresh eggs on removal from the fish are rinsed iu cold water and rubbed 
through a coarse sieve to separate them from the membranous tissues enveloping 
them. Ou completion of this, they are rinsed two or three times and are placed iu a 
liuer-meshed sieve to drain. Next, they are well mixed with fine salt and llavoring 
ingredients, there beiug added to each 100 pounds of eggs about 3J pounds of fine salt, 
2J ounces of citric acid, and a small quantity of lemon oil. After being thoroughly 
mixed with these iugredients the eggs are put iu a cool place, and after remaining 
undisturbed for eight days the jars or tubs coutaining them are tightly sealed. 

MULLET BOES, 

Mullet roes are considered great delicacies in nearly all countries' in which this 
fish abounds, and large quantities are prepared along the southern coast of the United 
States and in countries bordering the Mediterraneau. At maturity, which occurs in 
September and October, the roe of the Southern Atlantic mullet is from .") to 8 inches 
long and li to 2J inches in diameter. These are saved iu nearly all the mullet fisheries 
of the United States, and are sold either fresh or dried, about 300,000 pounds, worth 
$20,000, being salted annually on the west coast of Florida. 

Dried mullet roes are prepared along the southern coast from North Carolina to 
Florida, inclusive, in a manner quite similar to the drying of mullet. The roes utilized 
are from the matured females which have not begun spawning, for as the spawning 
time approaches the eggs soften and burst the surrounding membranes or roe bags, 
when they are useless for salting or drying. Nothing but firm roes should be used 
for salting, and soft roes, roes from fish which have been caught some hours, as well 
as roes from roe bags half emptied should, if used at all, be salted separately. 

In removing them care should be taken to avoid breaking the roe bags or injuring 
or bruising the eggs, but they should be free from portions of the surrounding viscera. 
If the tubs in which the roes are gathered have holes through which the water can 
run ott', some salt is saved and a better product is secured, the water making the roes 
soft and less liable to keep. The roes still in the roe bags are then placed in boxes or 
barrels with salt sprinkled among them, or in some cases they are placed in brine, 
where they remain for ten or twelve hours, but the former method is ]ireferred. An 
excess of salting must be avoided, since it causes the eggsacs to break and the eggs 
are ruined on exposure to the sun and to pressure, or they become dark and brittle. 
If ijropcrly treated a good article can be made of roes that have become somewhat 
soft by salting it immediately on removal from the fish, by using more salt than for the 
firm roe, or by resalting it. Medium grain salt is preferred for salting. Coarse salt 
should be avoided, since it is liable to become imbedded in the roe membrane and give 

* Norsk Fiskeritidende, vol. v, No. 2, Bergen, April, 1886. 



PRESEKVATION OF FISHKUY PKOlJUCTS FUR FOOD. 547 

it a burnt look. About 1 peck of Turks Island or Liverpool salt to KiO pounds of eggs 
usually gives the best results. 

On removal from the salt the rocs are spread out ou boards and exposed to the 
sun for about one week, being- taken in at night to prevent the moisture and dews 
from falling on them, and every morning they are turned over to thoroughly aid in 
drying them. Care nuist be taken to preveiit them from becoming wet after the 
drying has begun, and upon the first indication of a rain they should be placed under 
shelter. Sometimes after oue day's exposure other boards are laid on top of the roes 
so as to slightly compress them. When properly cured, they are i to 8 inches long, 2 
to 4 iuches wide, and one-half to two-thirds of an inch thick, and vary in color from a 
yellowish brown to dark red, according to the freshness of the roe, carefulness of hand- 
ling, degree of saltness, and length of drying. The i-oes are then sent en mossr. to 
market in baskets, boxes, or the like, and sold from 40 to GO cents per dozen, according 
to the size and carefuluess in curing. 

In the West Indies and in many countries bordering ou the Mediterranean 8ea, 
mullet roes are prepared by methods similar to those employed in this country. In 
Greece almost the same process is used, except that when dried the roes are generally 
dipped in melted beeswax. Those obtained from Tunis are very highly esteemed, 
about 150,000 being sold iu Italy each year at about 20 cents each. 

Mr. Day states : 

In Italy, the hard roe of mullet is converted into cakes termed bolarge or bolargo, which are 
prepared by washing and sprinkling with salt and pressing between two boards. This may be 
smoked or sun <liied and is considered a good appetizer to promote thirst. Bnt in India the same 
article is somewhat similarly treated and considered excellent for curries. 

Readers of Pepys will recall the eating of bolargo in England, as the gossip says: 

Sir \V. Penn came out iu his shirt on to his leads and there we stayed talking and singing and 
eating bolargo, bread and bntter till twelve at night, it beiug uioouahiue, and so to bed very nearly 
fuddled. 

SALTED SHAD ROES. 

A small quantity of shad roes are brine-salted in North Carolina, Virginia, and 
Maryland each year, these being so i)repared only when the state of the fresh fish 
market or the transportation facilities makes it necessary to pickle the female fish. 
The roes are removed from the fish in dressing the latter, care being taken not to cut 
or injure the roe bags. As soon as practicable thereafter they are washed by stirring 
them with the hands iu tubs of water, and are then placed iu tubs of strong brine with 
dry Liverpool salt sprinkled among them and at the toj). Every 12 hours during the 
ensuing 5 days the roes are gently stirred to separate them from each other and to have 
them uniformly salted. The sixth day they are removed from the pickle, drained, and 
placed in suitable packages, with dry Turks Island salt sprinkled at the bottom, through 
the roes, and at the t<Ji). The package should then be filled with strong brine iiuide 
of Liverpoiil salt. A variety of packages are used, the most convenient beiug 20-pound 
kits, which wheu tilled with salted roes sell usually for about $2 each. 

EGGS OP COD, HADDOCK, ETC. 

It is somewhat remarkable that the roes of cod, haddock, and other ground fish 
are not raor^' extensively used for commercial purposes in this country. A large trade 
exists in cod roes in Norway, the eggs being salted and shipped to France to be used 



548 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

as a bait in the sardine fishery. About fifteen years ago a small trade developed iu 
e.xportiug cod roes from this country for use in the same fisheries. The price received 
was about $2.75 per barrel net, and the price usually paiil in France is about 50 francs 
per barrel. In 1879-80, 3,200 barrels of cod and pollock roe were salted at Gloucester 
and shipped to France via New York, but on account of discriminative duties these 
shipments were soon abandoned. Au attempt has been made to introduce cod roe as 
a bait in the Eastport sardine fishery, but without success. 

The only roe now saved in the 'New England fisheries is that of the haddock, 
which is brought ashore fresh, especially by the shore vessels, the proceeds from the 
sale usually going to the cook or to the crew. It is taken principally in the spring, 
from 35 to 75 pounds being secured for each 1,000 pounds of dressed fish. It is sold at 
l^rices ranging from 25 cents to $2.25 per backet of 25 pounds, and the annual product 
is about 000,000 pounds, for which the fisliermen receive $14,000. It is purchased by 
consumers while fresh, and does not receive any special method of preservation. 

The possibilities for utilizing a part of the roe now wasted iu our New England 
fisheries furnish sufficient reason for incorporating herein the following description of 
the methods of making cod caviar in Norway: 

For the i)reparation of cod caviar the Norwegians use the whole ovaries of the cod 
which are salted in barrels, and mostly in the Lofoden winter fisheries. The roe must 
be salted whole without injuring or breaking the enveloping membrane, and must not 
be salted too much, just sufficient to imi)art a nice orange red color. When the salted 
ovaries are removed from the barrels they are first thoroughly washed several times 
in fresh water, and then hung on wires or ropes in the oi>en air, but protected from too 
strong sunshine. After they have dried about 24 hours t hoy are taken down lor snnik- 
ing. For this purpose they are hung in the same way in the smoking-house on sticks 
or rods or put on frames covered with old nets or wirework and cold smoked for two 
or three days, or until they become of a dark-brown color. After smoking, the envel- 
oping membrane or skin of each roe sack is torn and removed, and the eggs packed 
in good, tight barrels, which are then tightly closed and placed iu a normally cool 
place for a month or six weeks. At the end of that period the eggs begin to ferment 
somewhat, which may be detected by the swelling of the barrel. It is well not to 
wait too long, but to examine the barrels every week or so, and as soon as fermenta- 
tion has begun a sufficient quantity of salt should be put into the roe, to prevent the 
Ijrodnct from spoiling. 

By the fermentation the roe receives a slight acid fiavor and a taste resembling 
that of fermenting beer or wine, and this fermentation must be stopped by adding salt 
at a definite point, which is to be learned by experience only. The salt used to stop 
the fermentation must be of the very best qaality, and if the roe seems to be dry 
a little good French olive oil is added to moisten the product. After the roe has been 
thoroughly mixed with the salt it is put in 1-pound glass bottles that arc sealed with 
cork stoppers. 



PRESERVATION OP FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 549 



FOOD EXTRACTS OF MARINE PRODUCTS. 



VarioUvS methods have been introduced for preparing extracts of the alimentarj' 
principles of marine products, especially of those that are otlierwise wasted. In 
Norway and other countries of northern Europe a number of preiiarations in the 
nature of pastes or extracts are made from fish. A well known instance is tlie fish 
meal of Norway, which is composed of the tiesh of fish reduced to i)owder, in which 
all of the nourishing' materials are concentrated and condensed, with the addition of 
certain other substances. It is claimed that it contains 4 times as much nutritious 
matter as beef, and !•> times as nnu;h as milk or rye bread. On the coast of Cochin 
China, large quantities of a fish ))aste are prepared Iroiu the shrimp and small fish 
inhabiting the inshore waters. It is stated that this sauce is brought to perfection by 
being buried in the earth for several years. About $500,000 worth is consumed in the 
French provinces alone. 

EXTRACTS OF FISH. 

Following the idea of liaron von Liebig in preparing the well-known article of 
commerce known as "extract of meat," several attempts have been made to prepare 
a similar article from fish. In the case of meats, the substances soluble iu water arc 
extracted from the tissues, and tiie albumens are then coagulated by the aid of heat 
or by the addition of dilute acid. The fluid remaining after the coagulated albumen 
has been skimmed off consists of tlie extractives and the salts soluble in water, and 
this is evaporated down to a semitluid condition, in which it is placed on the market. 

In 1870, Stephen L. (ioodale, for many years secretary of the Maine Board of 
Agriculture, i.itroduced a method of preparing a food extract from fish, especially 
ajiplicable in connection with tlie use of menhaden for oil and fertilizer. His process, 
as improved iu 1880 and covered by Letters Patent No, 248586, dated October 25, 
1881, was as follows : 

Cle.an tbo fisli and boil fcir ,^ short time to coagulate the allmmeu contained in the niiiscli' juices. 
Separate tlic liqnid from the Bolid matter by drainage and pressure and allow the li(iiiid to stand in 
asuitaljle vessel nntil any oil which may havc^ passed over iu the ii(juid has risen to the surface 
and Ijeeu removed. The liquid is then aerated at tlie highest practicable teui[ erature, either by intro- 
ducing a current of heated air or of heated steam, or by ebullition with free access of air, when a 
substance causing tnrbidity is precipitated, the complete iirecipitatiou being ascertained by ex.amining 
samples taken out from time to tim(\ iu a glass tube or heater. If gelatine be present in the liquid, 
which is the case if skins and bones are not excluded in cleaning the lish, the proj;ipitate will ho finer 
and slower in falling ibau if iiinscnlav llcsh alone were used. The liquor will also a.ltain a somewhat 
darker color, resembling that of liglit wine, and be reduced iu bulk by the further concentration inci- 
dent to the means used to effect precipitation. When the precipitation is completed the precipitate 
should be removed from the liquid either by drawing off or by filtration in any convenifut manner. 
The clear liquid thus obtained is evaporated, as is customary iu making meat extracts, the evapora- 
tion to be continued until the desired cousisteucy has been reached, which is usually about that of 
honey. The product may be put up in cans, bottles, or other closed vessels. 



550 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

The inventor states that a barrel of menhaden yields about 3 pounds of tlie 
extract, that the article compares favorably with Liebig's extract of beef and retains 
its Havor under any ordinary condition of temperature or climate. While it has never 
been prepared for the general market, it seems not improbable that it might have a 
considerable patronage if i)roperly introduced. 

A saniewhat si mi hxr process was invented* in 1882 by Carl Adolph Sahlstrom, of 
Jcinkiiping, Sweden, for producing a nutritious extract from the flesh of the shark, 
whale, seal, and other sea animals. This process was as follows: 

The raw materi.il is cut up into as small pieces as possiltle by mechanical means ami is placed in 
a vat provided with stirring apparatus. A (quantity of clean water, free from lime, is boiled and 
cooled down to from 6-" to 15^ C, and to this is added so much dissolved hypermaugauic alkali as 
will imiiart to the water a light-red color (s.iy from 1 to 10 grams for every 100 liters of water) 
and from 20 to 100 grams of water of ammonia. Sufficient of this liquor is added to the finely cut 
raw material to give thereto the consistence of thin gruel, and the stirring apparatus is then set to 
work. After a period of from 10 to 30 minutes the mass is removed from the vat and is placed in a 
centrifugal apparatus for the purpose of separating the liijuor, which carries the fat with it. The inner 
T)art of the centrifug.al apparatus is preferably covered with cloth. When all the lluid is sepiirated 
the mass is again soaked in fresh licjucir and passed through the centrifugal apparatus, and this is 
done as often as may be necessiiry to remove all the fat. All the linid obtained is mixed together and 
left to stand iu a deep tank for ii period varying according to the temperature and until complete 
separation takes place. The fat and oil rise to the top of the liquid and are removed for further 
treatment. The oil is separated for special treatment. The solid nuiss remaining iu tlie centrifugal 
machine is also reserved for further treatment. The fluid thus obtained, free from any jiarticle of fat, 
is then mixed with 1 to 10 grams of common s.alt to each 100 liters of the lluid, is boiled as quickly as 
possible until the albumen coagulates, and is then filtered. The <lear lluid is evaporated iu vacuo or 
otherwise till it attains the consistence of treacle. It is then poured into a shallow vessel, which can 
be heated by ste.am. From 0.1 to 8 per cent of sugar is then added, for the purpose of preserving the 
extract and of imparting a taste thereto similar to that of Liel)ig'8 extract of meat. The extract is 
heated to a temperature of 100° C, and kept constantly stirred until the desired consistence is 
att.ained. Vegetables or extracts thereof, or any other flavoring matter, or flour or other material 
for imparting a higher nutritive power or to give solidity, may be added at pleasure. 

A factory was established at Aberdeen, Scotland, in 1885, under the superinten- 
dence of Sahlstriim, in which quantities of the extract were prepared from whale 
flesh. It was reported that the product i)Ossessed no flavor of the crude flesh what- 
ever, and was quite similar to that prepared from ox flesh. It does not appear that 
anything is done in this line at present. 

In a discus.sion of extracts of fi.sh, published in 1885, Prof. William Stirling, of 
Owens College and Victoria University, Manchester, states: 

The Normal Company, under the superintendence of Mr. Sahlstrom, has recently established a 
factory in Aberdeen, and has nuinufactured large quantities of a similar extract from whale flesh. 
This extract presents all the characters of an extract made from the flesh of the ox. Such an extract 
forms an excellent basis for a soup, having all the flavor of an extract of ox flesh. But extracts of 
fish can be made in a similar way, the product being, as far as sensible characters are concerned, 
indistinguishable from that of ox flesh. These are points of difiereuce dejiendiug on Ihe slightly 
dift'erent chemical compositiou of fish and flesh; for, even iu the same animal, there is a difiereuce in 
the chemical composition of individual muscles. Such fish extracts have no fl.avor of fish whatever, 
and possess all the aromatic flavor of meat extract, and I understand that they can be made much 
more cheaply th.an extract of meat. At a certain point iu the process of extraction .all the fishy 
flavor disappears. As a general rule, these extracts are made by boiling a watery extract of the fish 
muscles, after acidulatiou and precipitation of the proteids or albumins, in an open vessel with a 
double jacket, so that steam can be admitted between the layers of the jacket, .and thus keep up 



» Letters Patent No. 3.53822, dated December 7, 1886. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 551 

ebullitiou. Such extracts will l^eeji for a very long time, and they are available for all the purposes 
for which uicat extract is available. The fiuestiou has still to be tested dietetically whether such 
extracts are in any w,iy superior to those of meat. In any case they are quite ecjual to meat extracts 
iu stimulatiug and restorative iiroperties. 

Such extracts, however, can also be made from other marine animals, e. g., crabs and shellfish 
generally. In these cases th<', extract is so made that it retains the llavor of the crab or shelltish. 
Thus there m.iy bo manufactured on the spot .a large amount of extract which undoubtedly has a 
connnercial and dietetic value. In a properly adjusted dietary, however, mere stimulants and ri'stor.a- 
tivi's are not sutticient, but there must be a proper amount and adjustmeut of the jiroteids (albumins) 
carbohydrates (such as starches and sugars), fats, and mineral salts. The ([uestion arises, then. Can 
not a cheap and useful food be made so as to combine these substances iu jiroper ]iroportiouf The 
whole order of the legume tribe, reprcseute<l by peas, beans, and lentils, have a, high dietetic value 
and this fact was made use of by the (iermans in the n)anufacture of the famous " Erbswurst," or " iron 
ration," which played so prominent a part in the dietary of the Prussian soldiers during the Franco- 
German war. 

As a matter of fact, in most soups what one obtains is really the extractives and salts and some 
flavoring materials. The substances iu meat which give rise to the sens.ations of flavor and s.ipiditv 
are really most important from a physiological point of view, for they excite powerfully the secretion 
of the digest ivejuici^s, and this greatly aids the process of digestion. Hence the value of mixing even 
highly nutritions food with sapid articles. Every one is familiar with the fact that tasteless articles 
very soou pall on one's palate, and how nauseating they become after a time. (Fourth Annual K'eport 
of the Fishery P.uard for Scotland, pp. 257,2.58.) 

With a view to producing a more digestible and nutritious as well as a more 
economical article of food tlian tlie dried cod of commerce, L. M. Haskins, of Boston 
Mass., introduced iu ISSI a combination of fish tlesli, bone, tiud salt, ground together 
and desicciited. Ilis process of manufacture was as follows: 

The edilile ruiiiposition consists of fish bone aud fish flesh ground together with common salt in 
a mill or between grinding rolls, so as to be reduced to a powdered state and thoroughly ujixed or 
combined. Sixty pounds of the tiesh, 20 jjounds of the bone, and salt sufficient to give the mixture 
the requisite savor and preserve it from decay under ordin.ary circumstances .are found to aflford in a 
ground state an excellent edible composition. The proportions of the ingredients of the composi- 
tion may, however, be varied, as occasion may require, to produce a palatable and suitable article 
of food.' 

The inventor claims that this composition, by containing the alkaline and gelatinous properties 
of the bono in ajjowdered state, is not only readily digestible, and, from asanitary point of view, better 
as an article of food than salted tiah without any osseous additions, but that it can b(^ manufactured 
anil sold at a cheaper rate comparatively. It is well known that wheat or other Hour without the 
admixture of the bran is not so digestible or beneficial as food as it is with a due aumunt of the bran, 
the latter c-(uitainiug the constituents necessary to the form.ation of bone. So this composition, by 
containing osseous elements in a finely reduced state, is rendered thereby not only easier digested but 
better as a food, es|iecially when suitably cooked. 

Tlie following method of preparing fish meal was introduced by F. P>. Nichols 
aud C-athcart Thom.son, of Halifax, Nova Scotia, and i^atented May 1, 1883: 

The fish are headed aud split and a portion of the backbone is removed in the same manner as for 
making the ordinary dry-salted fish. The pieces are then washed and all bloody portions renmved. 
Very little salt should, it is said, be used in curing, as heavy siilting miikes an inferior meal, oven 
when the excess is removed by water previous to drying. For some qualities of meal it is preferred 
to dry without salt. In this stiite the fish would soon spoil .and very rapid drying must bo resorted to 
in order to save them. The immediate application of currents of hot air would accomplish this, but 
woulil render the skin so fri.able .as to defeat the after process aud in other respects injure it for m.akin" 
mc:il, and open-air drying would not be speedy enough to keep the fish from tainting. In order to 
obviate these dlfficnlties the fish-drying house .and apparatus of the patent granted this inventor 



* Letters Patent No. 241357, dated May 10, 1881. 



552 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

December 6, 1881, No. 260382, is employed. The drying must be more tUorougli tliau for ordiuary dried 
fish ill Older to make the fish hard .and crisj). The hard-dried fisli are made small enough to be fed 
into the hopper of a mill to he coarsely ground. Almost any kind of grinding mill may be used, pro- 
vided it is not too sharp and is set high for coarse grinding for the first run. This run should be bolted 
through sieves having about 144 meshes to the square inch. About 75 per cent of it should pass 
through the bolt. The remainder, which is too coarse to pass, copsists of the bones and the skin with 
considerable fish flesh adhering to it. In order to utilize this it is legrouud with the mill set closer 
and again iiassed through the bolt. If on examination ranch fish adheres to the skin it should be sub- 
jected to another grinding with a still closer set of the mill and again passed through the bolt. The 
residue from this, consisting priuciiially of skin, bones, and scales, should not amount to more than 
10 per cent of the weight of the dried fish and may be utilized as manure. The product of the 
last grindings contains considerable of the white portion of the skin, with fragments of bone and 
enough of the bhuk skin to give a coarse, dirty appearance to the meal. In order to remedy this it 
should be again ground in a sharper and closer set mill to redui-e it to a fine nu^al, and this, being 
passed through a bolt having about 400 meshes to the Ki|ua,re inch, gives a fine product and contains 
the most nourishing portion of the fish. The last product can be either used alone or incorporated 
with the first by uniform mixing. 

The inventors siiy: 

We are aware that fish meal has been previously made; but in all previous processes, so far as 
we are aware, the fish used have been so s.alt as to reijuire soaking the meal to remove the excess of 
salt before cooking, and the skin, fins, tail, and larger bones removed before grinding. We propose 
to use fish dried with little or no salt, and to grind them without removing either skin, bones, or 
other refuse contained in fins or tail, and to separate them liy bolting. 

In Eurojte "pastes" are made of anchovies, l)loaters, shrimp, etc., tlie output 
being considerable. Tlie following is one of the metiiods u.sed in preparing anchovy 
paste. For each gallon of ft.sh take 1 i)onnd of salt, .\ ponnd of saltpeter, 1 ounce of 
sal prunella (saltpeter deprived of water of crystallization by heat) and a few grains 
of cochineal, and pound the whole well together in a mortar. In astoue jar iilace a 
layer of the ingredients, then a layer of fish, and so on until the jar is filled, press 
them hard down and cover up carefully, and let them remain for sis months, when the 
paste is ready for use. 

Somewhat similar to the above are the very delicious sardine butter {Sardellen- 
hulter), crab butter ( Krebsbutter), and crawfish butter prei)ared in Europe. These sell 
very high, 00 or 75 cents being the usual price for a 2-onnce bottle. Mrs. M. von 
Eisenhardt furnishes the following process for making crawfish butter: 

Kemove the meat from 100 boiled crawfish, dry the shells, put them with one pound of butter into 
a mortar and pound them line. Then place in a saucepan over a fire and stir 5 minutes, add 2 quarts 
boiling water and cook for 5 minutes. It should then be strained through a napkin into cold water, 
and as soon as cold and firm remove it from the water and stir it in a saucepan over the fire for a few 
minutes, when it is ready for use. It should be placed in small glass jars and stored in a cool place. 

In Japan lean pieces of fresh flatfish, eels, shark, etc., are freed from the bones, 
pounded in a stone mortar, and at the same time mixed with a certain quantity of 
salt, flour, sweet wine, white of an egg, and sacchariferous alga^ [Laminaria)^ until 
the mixture assumes a paste-like consistency. Tliis mixture is molded into various 
shapes, such as semicylindric, on a curved wooden plate; hollow cylindric, around a 
bamboo stick; discoid, on a circular plate, etc. These are heated over a charcoal fire, 
and then steamed and baked. The product may be kept from 3 to 20 days, according 
to the amount of the desiccation and the season of the year. 

The secret of preparing several choice forms of fishery products has become lost. 
The method of preparing the garum sociorum of the Romans, a kind of fish sauce, is 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOn. 553 

now unknown. Athenanis and several other ancient writers speak of it in most glow- 
ing terms, and Pliny, who states that it is an extract from the entrails of certain fish 
that had undergone tlie process of fermentation, further says: 

The Greeks, in loimer times, prepared "garum" from the tisli called by that name. The best 
"garum " comes now from Carthago, in Spain (Carthagena), and is called " garnm sociornm." You can 
scarcely hny two boxes (each containing about 10 pounds) for a thousand pieces of money. No iiuid, 
except scented waters, sells for so high a price, au<l It is in great demand by all classes of society. 
The lishcrnicn of Mauritania, Hetica, and Cartega prep.are it from mackerel fresh from the ocean, 
which alone are fit for this purpose. The " garum "' from Klozoiriene, Pompeii, and Liptes is also 
highly praised; and the prepared tish from Antipolis, Thnrium, aud Dalniatia are no less to be 
recommended. (I'liiiy, Hist. Nat., xxxi, 8.) 

EXTRACTS OF CLAMS AND OYSTERS. 

It is generally conceded that clams, both hard ( Venus mercendria) and soft (Mya 
arenaria), form one of the most nourishing and easily assimihited of all foods, espe- 
cially when the hard indigestible portions are eliminated. For tliis reason there are 
many preparations of these marine produ(;ts on the nuirket, i)ossessing excellent 
medicinal and restorative qualities, making tliem almost iuviiluabie for invalids or 
convalescents. In making tliese prei)aratious the solid matter is usually separated 
from the liquid and the latter reduced in bulk by evai)oratioii. The extract thus 
obtained is rich in nutriment, is easily assimilated, and is a valuable tonic for x^eople 
of weak or impaired digestive organs, and also as an article of food either alone or 
combined with water, milk, etc. The Juices of oysters and other mollusks are also 
used at times for pieparing similar articles, but they do not possess the nutritive 
qualities of clam extracts. 

The first of these i>roiuietary C(miiiounds was introduced by Butler (1. Noble in 
1807,* the extract being prepared in the following manner: 

The clams are removed from the shells, rinsed so as to remove grit or sand, cut into small pieces; 
a small quantity of fresh water is .added and the whole boiled for abont an honr. The free liquor 
is then poured otf, the fibrous mass snbjected to pressnre, and the liquid obtained by this pressure is 
subjeited to a process of ev.aporatioo at a temperatnre not exceeding IftC^ F., and as much lower as is 
practicable, until it is reduced to a tliick ])aste, which is fnrtlicr rednced to a state of dryness in 
proper drying chaniliers. During the process of mal<ing, salt, pepper, and other coniliments may be 
.added if desired. This extr.act, which can be made into cakes ol' any size or reduceil to powder, is 
readily soluble in water and cont.ains the essential elements of nntrition and flavor ])eculiar to the 
clam. It is recommended that it be used in the making of soup, in flavoring, or for a v.aricty of other 
purposes in cookery. 

A patentt was granted to the same inventor for a similar process of drying the 
juice or natural liquor of oysters, which in the shuckinghouses is generally drained 
off and thrown away. This waste material was to be reduced to comparative dryness 
by any of the means of evaporation, and then pres.sed into cakes or any other desired 
form. It is stated that a 2oance tablet may contain the nutritive ingredients of 4 
quarts of fresh oyster juice and produce, with the addition of boiling water, 4 quarts 
of strong oyster soup, retaining the natural flavor of the oyster, to which may be 
added some freshly cooked oysters foi- verisimilitude. It does not appear that either of 
these processes is now used to any commercial extent. 

* Letters Patent No. 66616, dated July 9, 1867. 
t Letters Patent No. G67;?3, dated .July 16, 1867. 



554 lUJLI.ETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

In 1S7.") Charles Aldeu iutroduced a process * of preserviug desiccated oysiers, 
clams, etc., tor food in combiaatioii with vegetable or other alimentary matter. His 
process is as follows : 

The clams or other shellfish are taken from the shell and the natural liquor separated from the 
meat by straining through a sieve, or by any other convenient moans. The body or meat is then 
desiccated by evaporation to a dry condition, so that it can be pulverized or granulated by crush- 
ing or grinding. The li(|Uor, after separating the body or meat of the fish, is str.ained, to separate 
impurities, and sufficient bread ernmbs or other farinaceous or alimentary material to absorb the whole 
of it added to the same, after which the mass is desiccated by evaporation in the same manner as the 
meat of the clams, and, when dry, is pulverized and granulated and added to the desiccated meat. 
Salt and other desired seasoning substances may be added to the compound, and the whole, after 
being thoroughly mixed, is put in suitable packages for use. 

By this process it is claimed that all the natural elements of oysters or clams 
are preserved In suitable condition for use in making soups, chowder, fritters, and 
for other culinary purposes. 

Letters patent! issued in 1877 to H. W. Buttles, of New York City, cover a 
process differing little from Alden's, and consisting in cru.shing the flesh of shellfish 
and desiccating it with the juice, then combining the residuum with salt and certain 
farinaceous substances. The method is thus described by the patentee: 

lu preparing the clams for desiccation according to this process the meat is reduced to a pulp' in 
its own Juice by passing the meat and juice of the freshly- opened clams tbrongh a mill constructed on 
the principle of the "beating engine" used by paper-makers in the preparation of paper pulp from 
rags, the clam meat, flowing in its juices, being caused to p.ass between a revolving cylinder armed 
with knives arranged parallel to its axis, and stationary knives fixed below it, the two sets of knives 
being so approximated as to readily cut that which passes between them, the pulp being made to 
circulate in a suitable channel from the knives back again to the opposite side thereof by means of 
the revolution of the cutting cylinder. Or tlie clams may be crushed and thus reduced to pulp by 
means of a wheel revolving in a circular trough, or by means of any of Hhv improved forms of meat- 
chopping machines known to tho art. 

Having reduced the clam meat to a pulp in its own juice by any suitable me.ans, substantially as 
described, it is next desiccated, either by subjecting it to strong currents of moderately-heated air 
upon revolving cylinders or disks, as in the process for desiccating eggs patented by Laiuout, Quick, 
and others, or by exposing it to a moderate heat in suitable vessels placed in a receiver wherein a 
vacuum more or less perfect has been produced. In either case the clam pulp must not be subjected 
to a temperature so high th.at the albumin in the pulp shall be cooked or in the least coagulated 
and hardened while desiccating. 

The clam meat thus desiccated in its own juices is prepared for market and use by reducing the 
resultant h.ard brittle mass to an impalpable powder, and then admixing it with common salt, finely 
powdered, anil with a proper jiroportion of pure and unadulterated, cooked and uncooked, pulverent 
farinaceous substance, derived either from cereals, such as wheat flour, or from roots, such as potato 
starch, a proportion of about 60 per cent of cl.am, 32 per cent of farinaceous material, and 8 per cent of 
salt, yielding .m excellent product. Or thc^ elam pulp, prepared substantially as above described, may 
be admixed with bread crumbs, cracker dust, or other farin.aceous jireparation, before desiccation, in 
sufficient proportion to form a paste or dough, and the resultant hard, dry conipouiid be reduced to a 
powder for use. 

Another process of desiccating clams and other shellfish was introduced f in 1890 
by S. (r. Van Gilder, of Thiladelphia: 

In carrying out tliis method the clams, oysters, or other shellfish are first removed from their 
shells .aud separated from their natural li(|Uor by a draining process, accompanied by slight compres- 
sion, if necessary, to expel all the liciuor. After this separation, the meaty portion of the fish is 



* Letters Patent No. 168703, dated October 11, 1875. 

t Letters Patent No. 101024, dated May 22, 1877. 

i Letters Patent No. 4.10."')19, dated November 11, 1890. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 555 

reduced to a fiuoly coiiiminuted, pulpy mass V>y oUoppiii!?, grinding, or in any other suitable nianiifr, in 
■whi<'U stiite it is mixed witli ;i purtion of the natural liquor previously separated from the fish, and 
then subjected to a boiling heat — say 212°. After this cooking process the solid matter is again 
separated from the !ii|uid and the latter combiued with what remains of the raw lii|uor. Then the 
combined juices are subjected to a boiling and skinmiiug process to remove all superlluous matter 
and concentrate .and refine the liqiuir. This boiling and skimming process serves to elimin.ate objec- 
tionable matters floating in the liquor and concentrate and cook the juices, so that the resultiiut 
product will be nu)re refined and will keep in a prime condition for any length of time. To this refined 
and concentrated liciuor is then .added a suitable ipiautity of some farinaceous suljstance, such as 
flour, meal, cracker dust, bre.ad crumbs, etc., after which the whole is subjected to a boiling temper- 
ature, which will serve to cook the same .and thicken and coagulate the .albuminous and starchv 
matters contained therein. Then this coagulated mass is thorouglily mixed with the pulpy mass, 
and the whole subjected to a moderate degree of heat to evaporata all the moisture from it, and 
thereby desiccate it. The heat for the purpose of desiccation m.ay be .applied by steam, hot air, the 
vacuum process, or otherwise, in order that the desiccation m.ay be thorough, .\fter desiccation the 
product is reduced to a granular form and put up into suitable cans or packages for the trade. 

It is rlaimed tliat this concentrated food product will keep in a prime condition for 
au indetinite lenj^th of time, and when used for such purposes as soujjs, chowders, 
fritters, sauces, dressings, etc., the original flavor will be retained and greatly aug- 
mented by concentration. 

One of the most successfully introduced of the proprietary clam extracts is made 
by the following process: 

The uncooked clams are placed in a retort or receptacle, which is preferably air and steam ti^ht 
and live steam is admitted into said retort for 20 minutes, or more or less, ,as may be desired. The 
steam causes the shell or cl.am to open, thus liberating the liquid or juice inuu the solid meat of the 
clams, and said liquid drops into suitable pans placed for the purpose under the clams, the latter being 
supported by suitable open racks or gratings. The juice or li([nid extract thus obtained is next piissed 
through a suitable filter, and is then boiled to evajiorate a part of the w;iter and concentrate the 
extract, tlius making a given (juanl Ity of it richer than it would otherwise be. The boiling also rooks 
the nutritive elements in the licpiid sufficientlj' to prevent re.ady decomposition when exposed to the 
air. The liquid is finally put, while hot or cold, into cans or jars and iiermeticiilly sealed, the time of 
processing or cooking the jais or cans, so as to exclude the air and have it keep in any climate, varyiu"' 
as to whether the concentrated juice or extract is filled into the cans or jars hot or cold. (Letters 
Patent No. 39519!!, dated Decemlx-r 25, 1888.) 

Large quantities of extract are made from soft clams at several points on the 
Maine and Massachusetts coast after the last-described process, the jjiodact being 
placed on the market in pint, (juart, and gallon tin cans and selling at about >i2.r)0 per 
dozen pint cans, and at proportionate prices for cans of other sizes. Tiie surplus 
li(|uor from chims used in the canning factories forms the crude material and this is 
evaporated and prepared in the manner described above. In discussing the iiitroduc- 
tiou and use of this extract the inventor states : 

It lias been adopted in very many hospitals, hotels, .and liirge public institutions; it is bcin<' 
prescribed as a valuable stomachic by thousauils of i)hysiciaus, ami is already being sold liy viu-y many 
of the leading grocers throughout the United .States and foreign countries to families who use it .as 
foo<l in its various forms upiui their i.ibles. .\nother use to which it is getting to lie largely put is in 
making instantaneous hot clam broth or bouillon by dispensers of temper.auce drinks, being in this 
w.ay used in conjuuetn)n with water or milk, making, with the addition of pepper or s.alt, a very 
nutritious and palatable drink. Although this "extract of clams" is of recent introduction, yet the 
sales have already reached several thousands of cases per year, and the demand is stea<lily incrcasiu"- 
as the people find out the merits of the article. The prices of this new food are reasonable, so that 
those wlio are in moderate circumstances can afford to purchase it, the retail price for pint tins not 
exceeding 30 cents per tin and for the gallon tins not exceeding $1.50 per tin in the United States and 
the priucijial Kuroi)ean centers of trade. 



55n BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

There are several brands of clam extract or bouillon on the market, made from 
hard clams or quahogs. These are prepared in various ways, and usually, as in case 
of extract of soft clams, as a by-product in the canning of the quahogs. At one 
establishment in New York State the hard clams are steamed for the purpose of 
opening them, the escaping liquid being saved and placed in tin cans, processed 
heavily, and sealed, the meats being similarly treated and canned separately. It is 
claimed by spme that this jirocess is objectionable, especially in the manner of open- 
ing the clams by steaming. The hot steam coming in contact with tlie cold shells 
condenses somewhat and adds to the bulk of the liquor, tliereby weakening it; also, 
when the shells are heated they impart a peculiar flavor to the li(juor. As this 
preparation is not evaporated, diluting it with the condensed steam is especially 
undesirable. It sells for about $1.75 per dozen 1-pound cans. 

At another factory in New York State for preparing clam juice the clanjs were 
formerly opened with a knife, all the frc^e liquor being saved and tlic meats cliopped 
and compressed to obtain ad<liti()nal ]i(jn<ir. This was compressed and the liquid 
condensed, leaving the clear Juice somewhat coucentraied. It was soon found more 
profilable to use tlie meats in preparing clam chowder, and at present that is one of 
the principal products of th« establishment. The raw clams are opened with a knife, 
all tlie lifjuor being saved. The meats, with sufficient liquor, are tlieu mixed with 
disks of white potatoes, onions, and other vegetables to suit the taste, just as in 
preparing cliowders at home, placed in tin cans, processed, vented, ami hermetically 
sealed. The sui'plus li(|uor is condensed by evaporation and placed in glass Jars, 
which are then sealed. A large spoonful of this Juice is sufficient for a cup of bouillon 
after mixing with water. 

Some clam Juice is prepared on the North Carolina coast, and occasionally in the 
Chesapeake region a few cases are prepared experimentally and an attempt is made 
to market them. This usually results in a loss because of the article being unknown, 
considerable work being necessary to build up a market for a new brand of clam 
juice. 

In 1897 there was introduced in Scotland a method of preparing an extract of 
clams or other shelllish mixed with a sufficient quantity of seaweed, such as Irish 
moss or carrageen, to convert it into a Jelly,* for use as a "stock" in making soups, 
sauces, and the like. 

The process of preparation is as follows : 

Boil a qiiiintity of clams or other sbelllish in a close-covered vessel, using the smallest quantity 
of water necessary for the purpose. After the niollusks are sutliciently cooked, remove the shells, 
bruise or reduce the flesh to a pulp, and strain off all the extraited liquor from it. To this licpiid 
extract add the water used in cookiug and tlio liiiuid resulting from opening; tlie mollusks. Then 
boil this li(|uid with a ([uautity of Irish moss or carrageen, or any seaweed havinj; similar properties, 
which has been well bleached to remove color, apportioning the quantity of Irish moss and timing' 
the boiling ojieration toobtaiu a jelly of th(^ desired consistence. f5efore boiling the moss anil liquid, 
or during that operation, aild salt, jiepper, .and other flavoring condiments desired. Strain the product 
while hot and store It in stoneware jars or otlier receptacles, which may be sealed up. 



* Letters Patent No. 585395, dated June 29, 1897. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 557 



MISCELLANEOUS ANTISEPTICS AND ANTISEPTIC PROCESSES. 



There are a number of antiseptics which have been bronjiht to the attention of 
lish-curers for use in pieserviug tlieir products, in additiiui to those already noted. 
The most desirable are those that do not change the texture of the fish, as common salt 
does, among these being boracic acid, salicylic acid, citric acid, tartaric acid, etc. 
The flrst i.s considered a valuable preservative, as it keei)s fish and other food stuffs 
fresh for a week or more without great injury either to the appearance or (juality of 
the articles preserved, and it is used more (extensively thau all others, but usually 
only as an aid to other methods of preservation. 

BORACIC ACID. 

For many years the value of boratiic acid as a preservative agent has been recog- 
nized. Its extensive use with articles of food ap[)ears to have originated in Norway 
about 1S7(I. Among the articles preserved by its agency were herring, and the success 
with them was such that the trade gradually extended beyond the boundaries of the 
country ami in 1885 they were shi|)ped to England in large (luantities, successfully 
comi)eting witli fresh herring from Y'armonth and other points ot Oreat Britain. 

The general method of apiilication is as follows: The round herring are arranged 
in layers in a barrel and each tier covered with a thin layer of a mixture made of 
5 pounds of boracic acid and 10 pouiuls of fine salt. When full the barrel is tightened 
down in the usual way and the contents pickled with a weak solution of boracic acid 
and fresh water. The fish should then be kept in a cool place at an even temperature. 
In treating a barrel of herring in this way, Hi pounds of boracic acid and 5 i)ounds of 
salt are re(iuircd tor spreading on the fish during packing, and about 10 ounces of acid 
for dissolving in the water ixsed for pickling. The cost is about 8 or 10 cents per 
pound, wholesale. 

Some objection has been raised to the use of boracic acid as a preservative 
because of its alleged injury to health. In opposition to this it is stated that it has 
been used for years, especially to preserve milk in hot weather, and no evidence has 
appeared to indicate injurious effects upon the health. The Norwegian herring pre- 
served with boracic acid are said to be of good quality ami to be in fair condition when 
placed on the markets, even after being two weeks out of the water. 

In discussing the curing of lish with boracic acid, the British Medical Journal 
states: 

Large quantities of herring preserved with salt and horacic acid being at present imported from 
Norway .and sold in the London and Newcastle marlcets, attempts have been made to jirevent their 
sale. Tlie National Sea Fisheries Protection Association discussed the question :it a recent conference 
at Fishmongers' Hall, but no decision as to snch fish was arrived at. It may, therefore, be worth 
while to point out that boracic .acid being the essential ingieilient of our many food preservatives, 
br it iu the form of the acid, of boroglyceride, or of borax, has been used for years, especially to pre- 
serve milk in hot weather, and uo evideucu has ever been brought forward even to suggest injurious 



558 liULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

ell'octs tiiiijii the health ; it may, therefore, be taken to be ijerfcctly harmless. The Norwegian herrings 
preserved with salt and boracic acid are of exceptioually fine qnality, are perfectly fresh when brought 
into the market, and are, of course, subject to the usual process of inspection by the market inspectors, 
whose power of rejection is almost absolute. If, nevertheless, an outcry is heard against their sale, it 
is difficult to resist the belief that it is dictated liy the jealousy which is notoriously rife in Billings- 
gate circles. The introductiou of cheap food from new sources, welcomed as it always is by the 
public, is invariably opposed by the trade, who, after all, reap the chief advantage in the long run. 
One has but to recall the sneers of the meat venders at American and Australian meat to value the 
agitation against Norway herrings at its proper worth. Hitherto, happily, we have been spared the 
bitter discussions which have on the Continent led to legislation against certain food preservatives, 
such as salicylic acid, which wo in England admit without hesitation. The question is mainly one 
of public economy. Shall good food be wasted for want of a preservative, even if certain objections 
may be urged against their use, or shall we put up with these objections and aim at cheapening food 
for the masses, provided, always, that nothing which could injuriously aft'ect their health is allowed 
to be present? A sufficient guaranty is afforded by the vigilance of medical officers, puVilic analysts, 
and market inspectors against the abuse of antiseptics and I'ood preservatives. 

On the other baud, a flsb-dealer writes to the Fish Trades Gazette: 

Hundreds of barrels of herring from Norway out of one cargo were condemned, and there were 
about 1,500 barrels unsold lying in London at that time. France will not admit Swedish and Norwegian 
herring, nor any other tish cured by the process named. Many shopkeepers soon fin<l out to their cost 
that onee their customers have tasted herring cured with acid they don't ask for them a second time 

A couibiijittiou of boriicic aud acetic acids for preserving food products was 
introduced in the United States in 1S77 by 0. (t. Am Ende, who thus describes his 
invention : 

The invention consists in compounding boracic acid, either in a liquid or pulverous state, with 
acetic acid, in the proportion of about one drop of acetic acid to every ounce of boracic acid; but 
the proportion may be f aried, according to the nature of the substance to be preserved, and of the 
atmosphere to which the same is to be exposed. The acetic acid may be used more or less diluted. 
Other salts may be added to the mixture if desired. The composition is applied to the substances 
to be preserved in substantially the manner in which preservatives are usually applied. The acetic 
acid in the composition prevents the formation of fungi, while the boracic acid prevents putrefaction 
ohieily by hindering the formation of bacteria. (See Letters Patent No. 187079, dated February 0, 1877. ) 

ROOSEN PROCESS. 

This process, invented by August Roosen, of Hamburg, consists in placing the 
freshly caught tish in an :iir tight barrel, and then forcing the preservative solution 
into the tissues of the tish by using a pressure of several atmospheres. The details 
of the process are as follows: 

A strong cask of galvanized iron with an adjustable lid is provided. This resembles somewhat 
the well-known cans used for conveying milk, but is much larger. As many fresh tish as the cask will 
conveniently hold are placed therein, and the cask is tilled with water and certain proportions of 
boracic aciil and tartaric acid. The purpose of the tartaric acid is to neutralize the taste of the 
boracic acid, which, however, is quite harmless. The lid, fitted so as to be air-tight, is next adjusted 
and secured to the cask. A small force pump is connected with a hole in the lid, and additional 
quantities of a solution of the antiseptic in water are jiumped into the cask, expelling all air, which 
escaiies at a second hole in the lid. As soon as the cask is couipletely full and the air expelled, the 
liquid begins to How through the second aperture. An air-tight cap is then screwed tightly over this 
hole to prevent further escape of the liquid. The pump is again set to work forcing in the mixture 
until a gauge fixed to the pump indicates a jjressure of 00 pounds to the square inch. By means of a 
stopcock the opening is then closed and the air pump removed. The eliect of the high pressure 
is to force the mixture into the veins aud tissues of the fish and thus prevent organic change in any 
part. The tisli are shipjied lu the cask, and it is stated that they will keep for any reasonable length 
of time in any climate. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 559 

It is claimed that the cost of utensils required for the preservation of fish accord- 
ing to the above process amounts iu this country to about -ISO, the cost of a cask 
being B-0 and of a pump $10. The cask should be made of stout steel, and capable 
of containing 200 or 300 pounds of fish. The utensils should last five years, and one 
pump is sufficient for a large number of casks. If the cost of materials be distributed 
over five years, the average cost will be $6 per year, so that in case the cask is tilled 
only once a year the cost of uteusils and materi.als is a tride over li cents per pound of 
fish. But as each cask may be filled twenty times a year, and one jjump will suffice 
for a large number of casks, the cost is reduced to one-tenth of 1 cent per pouiui. 

The following extract is from an article iu the Fish Trades Gazette, of London, 
July 31, 18S6: 

The Roosen process is now jiretty well kiiowu iu England, aud it is generally ac-oepted as being 
far the most successful attempt to keep fish not ouly fresb, but also sweet, wbolesomc, and attraotivo 
for long periods. The; process, it nuiy be added, is not confined to fish, but has been applied with 
equal success to meat, game, fruit, etc. Experiments have been carried out in Scotland, aud public 
demonstrations of the value of the process made in Edinburgh and Glasgow, where its merits have been 
recognized by the very highest authorities on the subjects of fishing and the fish trade. Messrs. 
Dufresne & Luders, the agents of Mr. August R. Roosen, of Hamburg, the inventor of the process, 
lately decided that it would be well to make the process better known iu London, and accordingly 
invited a nnmber of representative guests to witness the opening of several casks of fish preserved 
by the Roosen process and to taste the same when cooked. There was an excellent res]ionse to the 
invitation, the guests including many famous autliorities in science aud in medicine, as well as others 
holding important governmental positions or being connected with connnerc<', not only in England, but 
also in the colonies and Indian Empire. Two casks, which had been closed for seventeen days, were 
opened liefore the company, and the fish when taken out were found to be perfectly sweet and fresh, 
bright-looking, and as attractive as the daj' they were caught. On being eaten they were pronounced 
excellont, and the advantages of the process were highly commended. 

A process somewhat similar to that introduced by Roosen was devised* by 
Magnus Gross, of Washington, I). C, in 1850. Gross's method differed IVom Koosen's 
in employing hydrostatic pressure instead of a force pump aud in using a strong 
solution of common salt (100 j)ouuds) mixed with carbonate of soda (-1 pounds) and 
carbonate of potash {2 pounds). This method was intended for the preparation of 
salted fish, the product being packed in dry salt after the curing process, aud it was 
never used to any commercial extent. 

ECKHART PROCESS. 

In 1877 John Eckhart, of Munich, Germany, patented t a ])rocess of preserving 
fish and meats by introducing a solution of salicylic acid with an apparatus similar to 
that used in the IJoosen process for preserving fresh fish. The solution was made by 
dissolving half a pound of salicylic acid iu 100 pounds of water. A hydraulic pressure 
of 12 atinosj)heres was applied for from one to two hours. In 1882 Eckhart introduced 
another antiseptic compouud|: for fish, salt, boracic acid, tartaric acid, and salicylic 
acid being used instead of boracic acid alone. The mixture was composed of 'tO per 
cent salt, 47.1 per cent boracic acid, 2 x)er cent tartaric acid, and i per cent salicylic 
acid. Iu its application the fish are stripped of skin aud bones and mixed with the 
compound in the proportion of 2 pounds antiseptic to 100 ])ounds of fish. They are 
next packed in cases of animal tissue or i>;irchiiicnt and put into casks filled with a 
gelatin solution made in tlie proportion of 10 pounds of gelatin, 4 pounds of the anti- 



* Letters Patent Xo. 2ti427, Decemlier 13, 1859. 
t Letters Patent No. 104.550, Angust 28, 1877. 
t Letters Patent No. 251772, January 3, 1882. 



560 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 

septic, and 25 gallons of water. The casks are then headed and connected with a force 
pump and more of the solution is forced in until the contents are well saturated. The 
lish may then be sliiijped in the casks or they may be removed from the cases, sprinkled 
with dry salt, and marketed dry. 

JANNASCH PRESERVATIVE. 

A compound patented by Hugo Januasch, of Germany, and in use at Gloucester 
and some other ports, is said to be prepared in the following manner: 

Equal parts of cliloride of potassiuui, uitratu of soda, aud cbeiiiically pure boracic acid are 
dissolved in the proper (inautities of water. A solutiim of chloride of potassium is then heated iu a 
kettle up to the boiling point, and a solution of nitrato.of soda added thereto. This solution is l<e|il 
on a brisk lire until the lye has become perfectly clear. The solution of boracic acid is then added 
under continual stirring. By the intluence of the boracic acid, at a temperature of 212- F., a 
reaction takes ]>lace, which is indicated by the mass assuming a yellowish color, and by the escapi! of 
chlorine gas. After the I'eaction has taken place tlu' solution is slowly evaporated at a low tem))era- 
ture, until a dry salt is obtained, which is composed of a combination of hypouitrate of potash, 
hyijochlorate of soda, borate of soda, borate of potash, and free boracic acid. 

In the ;ipplicatioii of this compound to the preservation of fresh, pickled, smoked, 
or dry-salted lish the following directions are given: 

In preserving fresli li.sh which are to be shipped or kept on the stand for sale, remove the entrails, 
sprinkle some of the preservative inside the fish, also iu tlie l)ottom of the box or barrel iu which the 
fish are to be packed; then place the fish in the box an<l sjninkle the preservative over each layer. 
If the entrails and gills are not taken out, insert, aicording to the size of the fish and the season of 
the year, more or less of the conii>onnd in the mouth of the lish, pushing it down as far as posssibic; 
then sprinkle some on the gills, after which treat the lish as above when packed in liox or barrel. 
Use 1 pound of preservative to 100 pounds of fresh lish. Tickled fish, if packed in kegs or barrels, 
are treated fust iu the way directed above. The barrels are then headed uj) and allowed to stand 
from 4 to 6 hours; then the pickle, which can be made much milder than the present pickle for tish, 
is added, aud the barrels are rolled to facilitate aud (juicken the ilissolving of the preservative. The 
])ickle should be admitted through the bunghole only, to prevent the preservative from being washed 
ort'. Ill prevent the brine fiom souriug and to enable its being used several times over again, it is 
recommended that to every 6 gallons of brine 1 pound of preservative be added, first dissolving the 
compouud in a gallon of hot water, and after it has cooled ort' i)Ouring it into the brine. Every time 
the pickle is used over again add sutificient salt to bring it back to the rei[ni8ite strength; then use 
oulv half the i|uantity of preservative taken the first time, w hich would be i pound of preservative 
for every 6 gallons of pickle. By this treatment the pickle will remain sweet and free from slime for 
a long time, and thus save the labor and expense of making new brine. 

MISCELLANEOUS ANTISEPTIC COMPOUNDS. 

While boi'acic acid and other chemicals have not beeu extensively used in the 
United States for preserving fresh fish, they have been employed to a considerable 
extent since 1S81 in connection with other processes of preservation. Boracic acid 
has long been used in a powdered form on dry salted cod, especially those put up as 
boneless fish. Its popularity has increased under various names, and it is now 
employed at several boneless-cod, oyster-shucking, and other establishments. It has 
been used to some extent in the preservation of caviar, but salicylic acid seems better 
adapted for this purpose. Most of the preservative autiseiitics used are proprietary 
comi)ouiids sold under various trade luxmes, such as " Preservaline," "Itex Magnus," 
etc. The following antiseptic comxjounds have been introduced. This smnmary has 
no pretensions to completeness, there being scarcely any limit to the number of 
compounds brought to the attention of lish-curers. 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 561 

IIydro<arlw7i gas. — Tliis is substituted for the air which occupies tlie space iu and 
around the substance to be preserved, subjecting tlie same to a tenjperature of about 
30O p^ ijiig oas is let into the package tlirough a hole iu the top and the air escapes 
through a hole in the bottom, and both holes are theu closed. (Letters Patent No. 
•157G5, dated Jauuary 3, 186.5.) 

Sniphifles of carbon. — Fish are placed in a receiver and the air exhausted. Gase- 
ous bisulphide, protosulphide, or other suli)liide of carbon is then let into the receiver 
under pressure and permeates the flesh. In combination with the sulphide is used 
phenic acid, methyl or other product of the destructive distillation of wood. (Letters 
Patent No. 85184, dated December 22, 1868.) 

Gelatin, lime, glycerin, etc. — Put the flsh in an air-tight compartment aud exhaust 
the air with a vacuum ]nimp, then by means of a force pump Introduce a solution of 
gelatin and bisulphite of lime. When conijiletely saturated remove the lish and diji 
them in a concentrated solution of gelatin containing bisulphite of lime, glycerin, 
sugar, and gum. (Letters Patent No. 9091:4, dated June 8, 1869.) 

Glycerin. — Remove from the fish all the refuse matter, such as skin, bones, etc., 
aud then grind the residue and compress from it the watery pi)rtions, blood, and oily 
matter to whatever extent may be desirable, and then treat it with glycerin, regriuding 
the material during this process. The flsh is then pressed into a compact mass and 
placed iu any suitable wrapper of tin foil or other material, or boxed. (Letters Pat- 
ent No. 87986, March 16, 1869.) 

Glycerin and antiseptic salts. — Oysters, fish, and meats may be preserved by use 
of a mixture of glycerin with phosphate of soda, or other antiseptic salt in connec- 
tion with aldehyde, formic ether, or acid in a solution of carbonic acid, water, glycerin, 
etc., and the preserved substance is then covered with parafin or stearin. (Letters 
Patent No. 93183, dated August 3, 1869.) 

Saltpeter and alum. — The tish, either after or before they have been salted, are 
placed for 4 hours iu a solution of saltpeter and alum, made in proportion of 5 pounds 
of saltpeter and 4 ounces of alum to 60 gallons of sea water. They are then dried either 
in the sun or by artificial means. If they are to be smoked, 2 hours in the solution 
is said to be sufBcient. It is claimed that this process removes all tendency to sweat 
or decay. (Letters Patent No. 95179, dated September 28, 1869.) 

Soda and carbolic acid. — After being cleaned the flsh are dipped in a solution in 
proportion of 5 gallons of water, 2 pounds of sulphite or bisulphite of soda, and 2 ounces 
of carbolic acid in crystals. Oysters, clams, etc., may be dijiped in a solution of their 
own liquor and the chemicals. (Letters Patent No. 86040, January 19, 1869.) 

Thymol or thymate salts. — Place the flsh, oysters, meats, or other animal substances 
to be preserved in solutions of thymol, thymic acid, or any of the thymate salts and 
water, alcohol, or glycerin, etc. (Letters Patent No. 108983, dated November 8, 1870.) 

(Jhloroforin and ether, etc. — The meat or flsh is placed iu air-tight packages, into 
which is poured a small quantity of chloroform, which becomes vaporized and sur. 
rounds the substance with an atmosphere of vapor which acts as a preservative. The 
cans are then sealed and are ready for shipment. When needed for use the (chloroform 
is removed by means of an air-pump. ( Letters Patent No. 128371, dated June 25, 1872.) 

Borax, saltpeter, etc. — By the Ilerzen preserving ]3rocess, meat is soaked from 
24 to 36 hours in a solution of 3 parts borax, 2 boracic acid, 3 saltpeter, aud 1 salt, in 
100 parts water, then packed in some of the solution. Before use the meat must be 
soaked 24 hours in fresh water. 

F. 0. B., 1898—36 



562 



BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 



BisvlpMte of lime. — The Medloch & Bailey method of preserving is said to be one 
of the most successful of antiseptic processes. The solution used is made of equal 
parts of water and bisulphite of lime of 105 sp. gr. Fish cured in this solution are 
claimed not to have all unpleasant tiavor. 

Acetate of aliimiua. — Meat and fish are covered with a coating of gum, then 
immersed in acetate of alumina, then a solution of gelatin, allowing the whole to dry 
on the surface. The antiseptic acetate of alumina forms an insoluble compound with 
the gelatin and prevents decomposition by excluding air from the substance. 

Benzoin and alum. — In the preservation of meat and fish by the Pagliare ])roces8 
they are immersed in a compound of gum benzoin boiled in a solution of alum, and 
excess of moisture is driven off by a current of hot' air, leaving the antiseptic on the 
surface of the fish or meat. 

JSaUcyliv acid and alcohol. — To 50 grams of salicylic acid is added 300 grams of 
rectified alcohol. White blotting paper is well saturated in this mixture and left to 
dry. By this mixture the ])aper becomes full of little red pricks and has a sweetish 
taste. The fish are wrapped in this paper ami packed rather loosely in dry hay. By 
this method it is claimed that fish or game can be transported at any time during 
the summer without danger of spoiling. 

Bicarbonate of soda and mceharine matter.— Take 40 parts of bicarbonate of soda 
and GO parts of saccharine matter, such as sugar, and mix them in enough water to 
form a thick paste or sirup, which is applied with a brush to the surface of the fish 
to be preserved. The fish so coated are suspended in a shady place for an hour or so 
and then exposed to an air current until the surface is thoron.uhly dried. By soaking 
the fish in water for 3 hours or more the coating is dissolved, when the fish may be 
prepared for the table. (Letters Patent No. 4745S1, dated 1892.) 

Fluoride of sodium and chloride of sodium. — A mixture made of 80 parts fluoride of 
sodium with '20 parts of common salt gives the best results, but the proportions may 
be varied according to conditions. This may be used either in the form of a powder or 
dissolved in water. When the fisli are to be preserved a considerable length of time 
they should be soaked in the antiseptic solution; but when they are to be i)reserved 
for a short time only they may be sprinkled with the powder. It is claimed that this 
antiseptic does not exert an injurious influence on the digestive fluids, but on the 
contrary is rather beneficial. 

Miscellaneous.— The following is said to be the composition of a number of propri- 
etary antiseptics used in Europe and to some extent in this country: 



CoiiH)08ition. 



Sozolithe: 

Sulphite of araraonia 

Sulphurous acid 

Soda 

Water 

Concentrated berlinite: 

Crystallized borax . . . 

Boracic acid 

Chloride of sodium .. 
Paechel berliuite- 

Chloride of sodium . . 

Nitrate of potash — 

Boric acid 

AVater 



Per cent. 


37.3 


39.7 


21 


2 


82.7 


9.8 


7.5 


45.9 


32.3 


19.3 


2.5 



Composition. 



The "Minerva" Chinese preserra tire 

Chloride of sodium 

Boric acid •. 

Sulphate of soda 

Sulphite 

Water 

Australian salt: 

Crystallized borax 

Chloride of sodium 

Some hydrocarburet 

Rugers barmeiiide: 

Bnric .acid 

Chloride of sodium 



25 
17.7 
38.8 
9.2 
9.3 

94 
5.5 
.5 

50 
50 



PRESERVATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS FOR FOOD. 563 

MOSS WATER. 

Among the "Paper.s in Colonies and Trade" for 1820 a somewhat novel method of 
preserving herring by means of moss water was described by J. Fred. Denovan, one 
of the pioneers in developing the pickled-herring trade of Scotland. His description 
is as follows: 

Having often observed the stroug autiseptic powers of mo.s8 water on vegetable and animal sub- 
stances, I conceived that it might be used with ettect in the cure of herrinL's, particularly of those 
intended for a warmer climate, and I resolved to try the experiment on a small scale: I first cured a 
few kegs of th<' later herrings (in October, 1»18) iu tlie usual way; but instead of throwing away the 
gut, gills, and bloody part, as is customary, I put them into a small cask with a proportionate 
quantity of Lisbon salt, aud pressing down the whole by means of an iron ]date a dissolution of the 
salt took place iu a few hours, aud a stroug red pickle was produced, on the top of which the fixed oil 
was floating. After carefully skimming off the oil, I added one-third of stroug brown moss water 
taki'U from a natural pond formed in the moor near Eyemouth; aud having taken the herrings out of 
the original pi<'kle, I packed them anew and filled up the kegs with this pickle. On opening them 
some mouths afterwards I not only found they were iu excellent preservation, but that the scales 
(wliieh always proves the iinality of the pickle) were as bright as when the fish were taken out of the 
water. — ("Papers iu Colonies and Trade" for 1820, p. lil.'i.') 

PRESERVATION BY COMPRESSED AIR. 

Varions experiments have been made in preserving meat and fish by compressed 
air. One of the most important i)rocesses is that known as Brandt's method, devised 
by Martin Brandt, of Denmark, A brief review of this process aud its imi)ortance 
to the tish trade appears in the Deiitnehe Fischcrei-ZcituiKj .Inly 8, 18S4, from which we 
quote the following: 

Martin Braudt's new method is said to have tliis .adv.mtage, that it does not change the shape, 
looks, and flavor of the fish, aud prevents tlie development of fungus. It is done by compressed air. 
It may lie continued for an unlimited ]>eriod aud be employed in tlie holds of vessels, railroad cars, 
warehouses, etc. For lining the rooms where the fish are kejit metal or cement is nsed. 'I'he pre- 
serving medium weiglis very little, as 1,000 cubic feet of compressed air weigh but 10 jiounds. In 
Mr. Braudt's warehouse a pipe runs along the wall from the Hoor to the ceiling, and back again, 
twisting several times, aud finally ending on the floor. The umchiue or development apparatus consists 
of an iron cylinder connected with a, so-called vacuum air filter. The cylinder is tilled with air 
compressed by about 200 atmospheric ])ressnre. By means of the v.acuum apparatus the machine is 
connected with the Jiipe iu the warehouse, and the compressed air flows, after a valve has beeu opened, 
with great velocity through the filter and the pipes. New air is also introduced in the vacuum appa- 
ratus tlirougii cotton filters, thus purifying it of all matter apt to decay, and, united with the stream 
of compresseil air, it continues to pass through the pipes. As the air expands it loses Some of its 
warmth and is gradually cooling oft'. When let out of the pipes th(i air, which h.as now become quite 
cool, rises evenly throughout the room and drives the warm air, filled with germs or fungi, through an 
opening in the ceiling. As the inveutor claims, fish and meat can be kept fresh for an unlimited period 
in rooms whose air has been purified in the manner described above. (Translated in U. S. Fish Com- 
mission Bulletin, 1884.) 



INDEX 



Page. 

Abbott, "W. H., on Dry -salting Kingfish 413 

Absorption System used in Freezing Fish 375 

Acetate of Alumina used in Preserving Fish 562 

Albacore Dry -salted 41C 

Aldeu, Charles. Patentee of Desiccating Process 554 

Alewives Brine-salted 45iM53 

Smoked 489-491 

Alexander, A. B., on Salting Salmon, in Alaska 455 

Alive, Fishery Products Preserved 339-357 

Alum and Saltpeter used in Preserving Fish 561 

Amber-fish Dry-aaltod 414 

AmEnde, C. G 558 

Ammonia Freezers, Description of 374-377 

Ams, Max 478.544 

Anchovies, Christiania 468 

Swedish 466 

Ancho\'y Paste 552 

Angilbert, Pierre Antoiiie 507 

Antiseptics, Miscellaneous 557-563 

Appert. Frauyoia 507 

Artificial Freezing and CoUl Stomge 370-388 

Means of Drying Fish 420-124 

Atwood, John 402 

Australian Salt 562 

Bacteria 337 

"Balyk" Prepared from Sturgeon 418 

Barracuda Dry-salted 414,416 

Barrels for Pickled Fish 426 

Herring 445,447 

Mackerel 435 

Mulletw 458 

B^che de Mer, Dry ing 418-420 

B6louga, Caviar fnun Eggs of 545 

Benzoin and Aluiu used in Preserving Fish 562 

Beuckils. orBouckelzou, AVilliam 437 

Bicarbonate of Soda used in Preserving Fish 562 

Bismark Herring 540 

Bisulphiti- of Lime used in Preserving Fish 562 

Black Bass, Urine-salting of 464 

(.'old Storage of 382 

Blackford .E.G., on Shipping Shad 360 

Bleeding Codtish for Drying 391 

Fish before Icing 359 

Bloater Herring 485-488 

Canned 540 

Paste 552 

Prepared in Great Britain 487 

"Blueback Mackerel" Canned 538 

Bluefish Brine-salted 464 

Icing 363 

Preserved in Cold Storage 370. 382 



Blue Pike, Cold Storage of 382 

Bolargo 547 

Boneless Codfish 390 

in Australia 399 

Preparation of 400-405 

Sardines 534 

Bonito Dry-aalted 414,416 

Booth, Alfred, Patentee of Oyster Package 366 

Boracic Acid 557. 561 

used with Codfish 399, 403 

Borax used in Preserving Fish 501 

Borodino. Nicolas, on Frozen-Fish Trade in Europe .. 385 

Bream, Caviar from Eggs of 545 

Bricks, Codfish Packed in 403-405 

Halibut I'acked in 499 

Brine-salting Alewives or Kiver Herring 450-453 

Blucfish 464 

Channel Bass 464 

Cod and Haddock 453-455 

Croakers 464 

Development and Methods of 425^27 

Fish on the Great Lakes 461-464 

HalibutFins 464 

Herring 436-450 

Hogfish 464 

Mackerel 430-436 

Miscellaneous 464-467 

Mullet ^ 457 

Porch 404 

Regulations respecting 427-130 

Sahlstriim Process of 406 

Salmon in Alaska 455 

Scotland 456 

Shad 458-460 

Sheepshead 464 

Spanish Mackerel 464 

Squeteague ; 464 

Striped Bass 464 

Swordtish 460 

(Also see Pickling.) 

Broiled Mackerel 520 

"Brook Trout" Canned, Prepared from Herring 511, 538 

Biickliug 487 

Burns, J. R., Patentee of Lobster Car 347 

Butter-fish Smoked 506 

Buttles. H. W"., Patentee of Extractive Process 554 

Can -filling Machines 510 

Canned Fishery Products on New York Market (Tabu- 
lar Statement) 540 

Marine Products Classified 511 

Canning ' ' Blueback Mackerel " 538 

I 



II 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Canning Broiled Slackerel 520 

Caviar 540,544 

Codfisli Balls 540 

Crabs 524,540 

Development and Methods of 507-511 

Eels 537 

Fishery rrodiicts 337,507-540 

Giant Scallops 539 

Green Turtle 539 

Halibut 539 

Herring 538 

"Herring Mackerel" 538 

Lobsters 521-523 

Mackerel 519 

Menhaden 509,538 

"Ocean Trout" 538 

Oysters 516-519 

Salmon 512-516 

Salt Mackerel 520 

Sardines 526-537 

Shrimp 523-524 

Smelt 538 

Smoked Sturgeon 538 

Soft Clams 519 

Spanish Mackerel - 539 

Carbolic Acid and Soda used in Preserving Fish 661 

CarpCauued 540 

Caviar I'rom Eggs of 545 

Cold Storage of 382 

Smoked 506 

Cars for Transporting Live Fish Overland 348 

Refrigerator 367 

Catfish, Cold Storage of 382 

Frozen, Remaining Alive 357 

Held Alive in Cars 345 

Smoked 503 

Caviar 541-547 

Canned 540,544 

Cold Storage of 382 

Channel Bass Brine-salted 464 

Dry-salted 413 

Cheese Prepared from Fish-roe - 546 

ChillingFish before Shipment 362 

Chinese Shrimp and Fish Drying 414-417 

Chiseling Ice 361 

Chloride of Calcium used in Freezing 375 

Chloroform and Ether used in Preserving Fish 561 

Christiania Anchovies 468 

Cincinnati Oyster and Fish Company 376 

Ciscoes Brine-salted .- 461, 462 

Clam Chowder Canned 540 

Extracts 553-556 

Juice 540 

Clams Canned 519,540 

Cold Storageof 382 

Marketed Alive 353 

Pickled 473 

Cod Brine-salted 453-455 

Cold Storage of 382 

Held AUve for Market 342,344 

Icing 363 

Live at Grimsby 344 

Woods Hole 345 

Koe Salted an d Smoked in Norway 547 

Codfish Balls Canned 540 

Dried, Grades of 398 

Drying in Foreign Countries 406-410 



Page. 

Codfish Drying on Atlantic Coast 390-398 

Pacific Coast 398 

Markets for 406 

Cold-smokiug Fishery Products 474 

Cold Storage and Artificial Freezing 370-388 

of Fish, Development of 371-373 

Collins, J. W., on Dry. salting Kingtish 413 

Compressed Air used in Preserviug Fish 563 

Compression System used in Freezing Fish 374 

Used in Desiccating Codfish 389,393 

Concentrated Berlinite 562 

Cooling Fish with Ice 359-367 

Corn Husks for Lining Tin Cans 509 

Crab Butter 552 

Soup 540 

Crabs Canned 524,540 

Shipped Alive 356 

Crates for Shipping Crabs 357 

Crawfish Butter ., 552 

Croakers Brine-salted i 464 

Crowell, Elisha 401,402 

Culling Codfish 393 

Curing Codfish 390-410 

Cudlish on Pacific Coast 398 

Herring, Foreign Methods of 441-450 

Cu8k,Drying 390,394 

Cutler, 'William D 400 

"Cut" River Herring 452 

Davis, William 372,382 

Day, Francis, quoted 437,465,545,547 

Denmark, Smoking Herring in 492 

Denovan, J. Fred 563 

"Desiccated Codfish" 405 

Desiccating Clams and other Shellfish 554 

Desiccation or Drying 389-424 

Development and Methods of Brine-salting 425-427 

Canning 507-511 

Smoking 474-478 

of Cold Storage 371-373 

Fresh-fish Trade 358 

Deviled Lobsters 523 

Discoloration of Canned Clams 519 

Shrimp 523 

Codfish 399,400 

Dried Mullet 412 

Dressing Cod for Drying 391 

Fresh Fish before Shipment 360 

Fish for Pickling 425,462 

Smoking . 474 

Halibut for Smoking 497 

"Drinking" Oysters for Market 354 

Drying 389-424 

Albftcore 416 

Barracuda 414,416 

Bonito 414,416 

Channel Bass 413 

Codfish 390-410 

Cask 390 

Fish Artificially 420-424 

Haddock 390,397 

Hake 390,397 

Kingfish 413 

Mullet 413 

Oysters 116 

Pollock 390,396 

Redfish 417 

Rock Lobsters 416 



INDEX. 



Ill 



Page. 
Drying Siilmon 411 

in Scotland 411 

on Alaskan Coast 411 

Sardines for Canniuy; 527 

Shrimps 414^16 

Skates 410 

Squid 417 

Sturgeon Meat in Russia 418 

Products 417 

Trepanga 418-420 

Yellow-tail or Aniber-lisb 414 

Dunbar, G. W., &. Sons 523 

Dunfisli 39C 

Dutch Cure of Herring 443 

Earll, R. E.. on Sardine Canning 527 

East Indian Method of Curing Trepanga 4 419 

Eckhart, John 559 

Eckliart Process of Preservation 559 

Eel Soup 540 

Eels Canned 537,540 

Cold Storage of 382 

Held alive lur Market 346 

Pickled - 470 

Smoked 504 

Eggs, Prt-paration of. for Food 541-548 

Eisenbardt, Mrs. M. von, on Preparing Crawfish But- 
ter 552 

English Method of Smoking Herring 484 

Etiier and Chloroform used in Preserving Fish 561 

Europe. Frozen-fish Trade in 383. 385-387 

European Trade in Anieriean Oysters 355 

Evaporation in Freezing Fish 382 

Extracts of Clams and Oysters 553-556 

Fisli 549-553 

"Family Whitefish" 462 

Farlow.W.G 399 

Farris, Joseph, on Salted Alewives 450 

Feeding Lobsters Confined in Pens 340 

Sturgeon Confined in Pens 340 

Fermentation Fish 466 

"Fibered Codfisli " 405 

Finnan Haddie 500 

Canned 540 

Fish Chowder Canned 540 

Curing by AVhitman Process 422-424 

Dried by Chinese in Louisiana and California . .. 416 

Eggs Prepared as Food 541-548 

Meal 549,551 

Transported Alive 348 

Flakes for Codfish 394 

Flatfisli, Freezing of 377, 382 

Flavoring Solutions used in Pickling Fish 425, 467-473 

Flrteh.ng Halibut 497 

Floats for Storing Oysters or Clams 354 

Flounders Smoked 506 

Fluoridr of Sodium and Chloride of Sodium 562 

Fond ExtraciM of Marine Products 549-556 

Foreign (.'odtisli Markets 40C 

Herring, Importation of 440 

Methods ol Curing Codfish 406-410 

Herring 441^50 

Sardinf-8 531-537 

Smoked Herring in the United States 479, 483 

Smokehouses 475 

Formalin, to prevent Mold on Frozen Fish 381 

Freezing, Artificial and Cold Storage. 370-'i88 

Freezing PMsU in Europe 385-387 



Page. 

Freezing Fish in the Open Air 368-370 

Herring for Bait 387 

French Metliod of Curing Codfish 407 

Sardines 534 

' ' Freshening ' ' Oysters for Market 354 

Fresh-fiah Trade, Development of 35S 

Fresh Mackerel Fishery, lee used in 365 

Fresh-water Fish Transported Alive in Germany 350 

Frog Legs, Cold Storage of 382 

Frozen Herring Industry 368-370 

Used for Bait 369. 387 

Fryer, C. E., on Preparation of Sprats as Sardines . . . 535-537 

Fuel for Smoking Fish 476,482,488,499.501 

Fulton Market Live-cars 344 

Funiadoes 465 

Giihrfisch or Fermentation Fish 466 

Garfish Eggs as Caviar 542 

Garum sociorum 552 

Gelatin used in Preserving Fish 561 

Germany, Smoking Eels in 505 

Salmon in 496 

Gewiirzhering 469 

Giant Scallops Canned 539 

Gibhed Herring 435) 

"Gibbing" Mackerel 432 

Glucose used in Brine-salting 436 

Glycerin used in Preserving Fiah 561 

Goble, Oregon, Cold Storage Plant 376 

Goodale, Stephen L., Inventor of Fish Extract 549 

Grades of Codfish 393, 398 

Halibut. Fresh 304 

Smoked 499 

Hard Herring 482 

Mackerel, Brine-salted 435 

Mullet, Brine-salted 458 

Trout. Brine-salted 464 

Whitefish, Brine-salted 464 

Grass Pike, Cold Storage of 382 

Great Lakes. Brine-salting Fish on 461-464 

Green Turtle Canned 539,540 

Soup 539 

Penned Alive on Gulf of Mexico 341 

Gross, Magnus 559 

Groupers Preserved in Well-smacks 343 

Haddock Brine-salted 453 

Cold Storage of 382 

Cured as Clubbed Haddock 396 

Drying 390,394,396 

Icing 363 

Roe in New England Fisheries 548 

Smoked 500-501 

Hake, Drying 390,394 

Smoked 506 

Halibut Canned 539 

Cold Storage of 382 

Fins Pickled 464 

Grades of Fresh 364 

Smoked 499 

Icing 363-365 

Smoked 497-499 

Halifax Salmon 455,493 

Hall, Ansley, on Brine-salting Alewives 452 

Preparing Sardines 531 

Smoking Hard Herring 479^82 

Testing Sardine Cans 530 

Hamburg, Shipments of Fish to 383 

Hapgood, Hume &.Co 512 



IV 



INDEX. 



rage. 

H.nr(] Herring 478-485 

llaskins L M 551 

Herrin;.' HarrcLs 445,446 

Urainlrd as '• lironk Trout " 538 

nriue salleit 436-450 

Canned 540 

as Mackerel 538 

Foreign Metlunl ol" Itriou-salting 441-450 

Frozen for I tail 387 

in < )ii.u A i r 368-370 

Tinports of Pickled 338, 440 

in Norway. rrop:t ration of 468 

of Northern Europe 436 

Pn-servt'd in Cold Storage 370 

Smoked 478-493 

"Herring Mackerel' Canned 538 

Herzen Preserving I'roceas 561 

Hogfiali liri no salted 464 

Held A live on Virginia Coast 346 

Hogshead Sniokeliuiises 475 

HoUlswitrtli, on Liv*-cara at Grimsby 344 

I*ieparing Fumadoes 465 

Holland Herring - 440 

ProeeM>4 <d' Picklin;; Cod 454 

Smoking Herring 483 

Smoking Salmon in 496 | 

Horseshoe CraVt Eggs as Caviar 542 ! 

Hot-snioUing Fishery Products 474 ', 

Hume. lt(d)ert 1>., Patentee of Can-filling Machine 511 

Hydroearlmn Gas usi-d in Preserving Fish 561 

Iceand-salt Freezers, Description of 373,379 

Ice, Cooling Fish with 359-367 

in Fresh Mackerel Fishery 365 

Introdu<*ed in the Vessel Fisheries 359 

"Ice-house sal toil S Imon " of Sweden 456 

Iceland Method of Curing Codfish 409 

IcingCod, Haddoek, and liluefish 363 

Halihut 363-365 

Oysters 366 

Shad ,.365 

Importation of Caviar 542 

Piekled Herring 440 

Pickled Salmon 455 

Kussian Sardines 467 

Sardines 534 

Inclosed Water Areas for Preserving Fishery Prod- 
ucts Alive 339 

Indians of the Northwest, Fish-drying by 389,411 

Ingraham. E. K 388 

Inspection of Mackerel 434 

Pickled Fish 428-430 

Insulation ot Cold-storage Walls 376,381 

Italian Sardels 466 

Jannascli Preservative 560 

Japanese Canned Shrimp 524 

Methods of Pickling Fish 425 

Preparing Fish Extracts 552 

Jellied Oysters 472 

Jennings, R.S 399 

Johnson &. Young, Lobster Pond established by 340 

Jordan, David S., on Drying Kedfish 417 

Kegs for Caviar 543 

P^ireign Herring 440 

Kenchcured Codfish 395 

Mullet 412 

Kenselt, Thoraas 516 

Kieler Sprotten 540 



Page. 

KiiiLilish Dry-«alted 413 

Smoked 506 

Kippereil Herring 488 

Salmon 411 

Labradiir Split Herring 487 

Lake Herring lirine-salted 461-464 

Freezing of 370-382 

Smoked 491 

Lake Trout, lirands of 464 

Brine-salted 461-464 

Canned 540 

Freezing of 370-382 

Smoked 506 

Lane, Charles (!., Inventor of Fish Can 510 

Lead Poisoning Irom Canned Fish 509 

Leask'slUfrigerating Machinery and its Management. 374 

LeClair, E., on Icing Fish 361 

Live-cars or Live-boxes 344-348 

Live Crabs, Transportation of 356 

Fish Transported Overland 348-350 

Lobsters Transported 350-353 

Oysters anil Clams Transported 353-356 

Terrapins and Turtles 357 

Lobster Live-cars 347 

Ponds on New England Coast 340 

Smacks 343 

Lobsters Boiled before Shipment 353 

Canned 521-523,540 

Pickled 473 

Preserved in Coves or Ponds 340 

Live-cars 347 

Transported Alive 350-353 

Louisiana Catfish held Alive for Market 345 

Shrimp Drying 414 

Mackerel Urine-salted 430-436 

'■liroiled" 520 

Canned 519,540 

Cold Storage of 370,382 

Icing Fi-esh 365 

Pocket 432 

Smoked 505 

Maine Regulations as to Brine-salting 428 

Massachusetts Regulations as to Brine-salting 429 

Smoking Alewivea . 490 

Matjeshering 469 

McCrea, A. L .,. 367 

McEwan, Thomas 500 

McMenamin, James 524 

Mechanical Freezers for Fish, Description of 374-377 

Medloch and Bailey Method of Preserving Fish 562 

Menhaden as Saidines 533 

Canned as "Ocean Trout." etc 538 

Canning 509 

Food Extract from 550 

Smoked 506 

Mess Mackerel 435 

"Minerva" Chinese Preservative 562 

Moldnu Frozen Fish 381 

Smoked Fish 477 

Moore, A. H 510 

Moser, Jetlerson F 516 

Moss Water used in Preserving Fish 563 

Mullet Brine-salted 457 

Dry salted 412 

Roes Salted 546 

Smoked 506 

Mussels Pickled 473 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Natural Ice Preferred for Shipping Fish 362 

Newloiiiulland Split Herring 487 

Nickerson, Joseph .' 401 

Nielseu, Adoii)b, on Brine-salting Herring 441-446 

Curing Codtisli 407 

Shipping Live Lohstera to Europe. 352 

Smoking Hard Herring 483 

Noble, Butler G 553 

North Carolina, Brine-salted Mullet in 457 

North Truro, Mass., Frozen Herring Plant 388 

Norway, Preparing Russian Sardines in 468 

Norwegian Cod Caviar 548 

Cure ol' Herring 443 

Herring ^ 441 

Method of Curing CodBsh 407 

Sardines 535 

Stocktish 410 

Nova Scotia, Smoking Salmon in 495 

"Ocean Trout "' Canned 538 

Oil in Sardine Canning 527,528,531 

Open-air FreeziMg of Fish 368 

Oyster Canning 51G-519 

Crabs Pickled 472 

Trade on Pacific Coast 355 

Tubs \ 367 

Oysters Canned 540 

Cold Storage of 382 

Drii-il by Chinese 410 

Extracts of 553-556 

Icing 366 

Pickled 472 

Shi pped A live 353-356 

Vitality of 355 

Wiring of 355 

Pachaly, Arno Gustav 350 

Pacific Coast Oyster Planting 353 

Product of Canned Salmon 513 

Salmon Canning 512-516 

Sardine Canning 532-533 

Package Tubs for Oysters 366 

Pagliare Process of Preserving Fish 562 

Pan Freezing, Origin of 372 

Pans used in Freezing Fish 377-379 

" Pastes " made from Fish 552 

Paulson, M.J 387 

Peebles, B.K 501 

' ■ Peeler ' " Crabs 356 

Perch Brine-aalted 464 

Caviar from Eggs of 545 

Cold Storage of 382 

Preserved Alive 340 

Pickerel Smoked, Canned 540 

Pickle-cured Codfish 396 

Pickling Clams 473 

Eels 470 

Halibut Fins 464 

Lobsters 473 

Marine Products 337,425-473 

Mussels 473 

Oyster Crabs 472 

Oysters 472 

Kiver Herring in Kussia 453 

Salmon 455-457,471 

Scallops 473 

Sturgeon 469 

with Vinegar and Spice 467-473 

(Also see Brine-salted.) 



Page. 

Pike, Brine-salting 461-464 

Caviar from Koe of 546 

Frozen Alive in Ice 357 

Pilchards Salted 465 

Piper, Enoch, Patentee of Refrigeration Process 371 

" Plowing " Mackerel 433 

Pocket or "Spiller" for Mackerel 431 

Pollock Dry -salted 390,396 

Smoked 499,506 

Pompaun, Cold Storage of 382 

"Preservaline" 543,560 

Preservation of Fishery Products Alive 330-357 

by Canning 507-540 

Drying and Dry -salting 389-424 

Low Temperature 358-388 

Miscellaneous Antiseptics 557-563 

Pickling 425-473 

Smoking 47-4-506 

Pressed Sard i nes 465 

Prices of Briue-salted River Herring 452 

Canned Fish, Tabular Statement 540 

Codfish, Tabular Statement 398 

Foreign Herring, Tabular Statement 441 

Mackerel, Tabular Statement 436 

Smoked Herring 483 

Quarter (Jil Sardines. Cost per Case .531 

Railroad Car for Transporting Livi- Oysters 356 

Kathbun, Richard, ou Drying Shrimp at San Fran- 
cisco 415 

Reaming Mackerel 433 

Reddening of Dry-salted Mullet 412 

Salted Codfish 399,400 

Redfish Dry-salted 417 

Red Herring, Preparation of 485 

Red Snappers Preserved in Well-smacks 343 

Refrigeration 337, 358-388 

Applied to Salmon 384 

of Fish on Pacific Coast 383 

Refrigerator Cars 367 

Regulations as to Brine salted Fish 427-430 

Inspecting and Packing Smoked 

Herring 490-491 

Smoked Herring 483 

Reid, J. M 421 

"Res Magnus" 560 

Rhode Island Regulations as to Brine-salting 430 

River Herring, or Ale wives, Brine-salted 450-453 

Smoked 489--401 

Rock Lobsters, Drying 416 

Roosen Process 55s 

Rouud Herring 438 

Ruger's Barmen ide 562 

Russian Method of Drying Sturgeon Meat 418 

Pickling River Herring 453 

Preparing Caviar 544 

Product of Caviar 541 

Sardines 407 

Stockfish 410 

Rust on Brine-salted Fish 4*J6 

Ryder, John A., on Wiring Oyster-shells 355 

Sahlstriim Prttcesa <)f Rriucsaltiug Fish 46ii 

Preparing Food Extracts from 

Fish 550 

Salicylic Acid used in Preserving Fish 557, 559, 562 

Salmon Brine-salted 455-457 

Brine-salting on Pacific Coast 455 



VI 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Salmon Canned on Pacific Coast 513,540 

Canning - 512-516 

Dried and Dry -salted 411 

Frozen on Pacific Coast 370,384 

Picltled 471 

Sbipped from Colnmbia River to Atlantic Coast 368 

Smoked 493-497 

Transferred Alive by TJ. S. Fish Commission . . 346 

Salt-and-ice Freezers, Description of 373 

Salt Mackerel Canned 520 

Saltpeter and Alum used in Preserving Fisli 561 

Used in Smoking Fish 495 

Salt-water Crajtisli, Prving 416 

Fish Transported Alive in Germany 350 

San Francisco, Sbrimp-drying by Cbinese 415 

Sardels - 466 

Sardine liutter 552 

Canning in Maine 526-532 

on Pacific Coast 532-533 

Output of Maine in 1889 and 1892 530 

Sardines 526-537,540 

Foreign 534-537 

Prepared from Menhaden 533 

Russian 467 

Smoked, Norwegian 535 

Saugers, Cold Storage of 382 

ScaUops, Cold Storage of 382 

Pickled 473 

Sclmltz, Alexander, on Drying "Balyk" 418 

Schwann, Theodore 337 

Scotch Oiro of Herring 441-443 

Method of Curing Codfish 408 

Scotland, Brine-salting Salmon in 456 

Drying Salmon in 4U 

Process of Pickling Cod 454 

Method of Preparing Extract of Clams 556 

Scup held Alivo in Pounds 340 

Sea Bass held Alivo for Market 344,346 

Sea-Cucumber, Drying 418-120 

Sea Slug, Drying 418-420 

Seal Flesh, Food Extract from 550 

Seed Oysters Shipped to Pacific Coast 355 

Sellman, Henry 467,520,527 

Seufert Brothers Co. on Transporting Salmon 368,384 

Sevriouga, "Balyk " made from 418 

Caviar from Eggs of 545 

Shad Brine-salted 458-460 

Cold Storageof 382 

Eggs as Caviar 542 

Icing 365 

Roes Salted 547 

Smoked 506 

Sh.irk Flesh, Food Extract from .550,552 

Sheepshead Brine-salted 464 

"Sliell Lobsters," Canning of 522 

Shipping Car used in Great Lakes Fish Trade : . . 362 

Fresh Fish 359-362 

Frozen Salmon from Pacific Coast 384 

Live Crabs 356 

Lobsters 350-353 

Oysters and Clams 353-356 

Packages for Fish 361 

Packages for Oysters 366 

Shrimii, Canning 523, 540 

Drying 414-417 

Paste 552 

Siuimonds, P. L.,on Curing Trepangs in East Indies .. 419 



Page. 

Skates Dried 416 

Sniackees ,_ 343 

Snuall Fish, Canning 50D 

Smelt, Canning 538 

Preserved in Cold Storage 370 

Smith, H.M 356 

Smoked Alewives or River Herring.-. 489-491 

Bloater Herring 485-488 

Butter-fish 506 

Carp 506 

Canned 540 

Catfish 503 

Eels 504 

Flounders 506 

Haddock or Finnan Haddie 500 

Hake 506 

Halibut 497-499 

Hard Herring 478-485 

Kingfish 606 

Kippered Herring 488-489 

Lake Herring 491 

Lake Trout 506 

Canned 540 

Mackerel 505 

Menhaden 506 

Mullet 606 

Pike Canned 540 

Pollock 499, 506 

Salmon 493-496 

Sardines of Norway 535 

Shad 506 

Sturgeon 501-503 

Canned 538 

Tileflsh 506 

Whitefish 491 

Smokehouses, Description of 475-476, 479, 499 

Smoking Fishery Products 474-506 

Soda and Carbolic Acid used in Preserving Fish 561 

Soft-shell Crabs Shipped Alive 356 

Sozolithe 562 

Spanish Mackerel Brine-salted 464 

Canned 539 

Cold Storage of 382 

Spiced Herring 469 

Spices, Pickling with Vinegar and 467-473 

Spinal Cords of Sturgeon utilized 417 

Split Herring 439 

Sprats Prepared as Sardines 535 

Sprinkling Trough 380 

Squeteague Brine-salted 464 

Preserved in Cold Storage 370, 382 

Sqtiid Dried by Chinese 417 

Stanley, Isaac L 509 

Stephens, Benj. F 401 

Stearns, Silas, on Drying Trepangs 418 

Stilwell.A.E 356 

Stirling, William, on Extracts of Fish 550 

Stockfish 389,410 

Storage, Cold 370-388 

Striped Bass Brine-salted 464 

Cold Storage of 382 

PennedAlive in Souihem Delaware 340 

Sturgeon, Caviar from Eggs of 540-545 

Fed on Corn 340 

Meat Dried in Russia 418 

Penned Alive on the Great Lakes 340 

Pickled 469 



INDEX. 



VII 



Page. 

Sturgeon Preserved in Cold Storage 370, 382, 384 

Products Dried 417 

Smoked 501-503 

Canned 540 

Sugar used iu Briuc-aaltiiig 426 

Sulidiidcs of Carbon used in Preserving Fisb 561 

Sutherland, J. P.. Patentee nf He frige ra tor Car 367 

Sweden, Pressed Sanlines of 465 

Swedish Process (if Pickling Cod 454 

Salted Saltnon 456 

Sniokeil Salmon 494 

Swordfieh Brim- salted 460 

Tautog held Alive for Market 344,346 

Tempeniture for Cold Storage 381,382 

'"•rrapius Canneil 540 

Penned Alive on the Gulf of Mexico, etc. 341,357 

Thompson, Cathcart, Patentee of Artificial Drier 421 

Fish Meal Process . . 551 
Thynidl nr Thyinate Salts used in Preserving Fish - . . 561 

Tiletish Sniuked 506 

TrepangM Dried 418-420 

Turtle rield Alive for Market 341,357 

Soup Cnnned 530 

Van Gild.ir, S. G 554 

Variety of Fish-food Pi'odiicta in United States 338 

Vinegar, Pickling with 467-473 

"Wallem's Freezer for Hait , 388 

Wall-eyed Pike, Cold Storage of 382 

Water-horsing Codliali 393 

Halibut for Smoking 498 



Page. 

Water-horsing Salmon for Smoking 493 

Well-smacks 341-343 

Early use of 341 

in Halibut Fishery 341 

Lobster Fishery 343 

New York Market Fishery 342 

North Sea Fisheries 349 

Red Snapper Fishery 343 

Whale Flesh, Food Extract from 550 

Whitefish Brine-salted 461-464 

Dressed fnr Market 360 

Freezing of 370-382 

Grades of 464 

Preserved Alive in Ponds 339 

Smoked 491 

Whitman Process of Curing Fish 422-424 

Whitman, Thomas S., Patentee of Artificial Dryer 422 

Wilcox, W. A., on Drying Spinal Cord of Sturgeon ... 417 

Freezing Fish on Pacific Coast 383 

Salmon Canning on I'aeific Coast. 513-516 

Willard, H. E 431 

Wiring Oyster-shells 355 

Woltf, Julius 520 

Wonson. Wm. H,, &.S0D3 499 

Wood, George K 367 

Woudrutf, Lyman, Process of Smoking Salmon 496 

Yarmouth Bloater Industry 487 

Yellow Pike Dressed for Market 360 

Yellow-Tail Dry -salted 414 



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